People Financing Entrepreneurs within and outside the Family: Pandemic Decline and Resilience in Cultures around the World

People may finance entrepreneurs, often family members. Here, the question is: how has the COVID-19 pandemic affected people’s funding of family-related entrepreneurs and non-family-related entrepreneurs? The pandemic predictably reduced the funding of family-related entrepreneurs and especially the financing of non-family-related entrepreneurs. However, a culture supportive of family businesses may alleviate the declining funding of family-related entrepreneurs, predictably, while a secular–rational culture supportive of non-family businesses may alleviate the declining financing of non-family-related entrepreneurs. Similar to a field experiment, a globally representative survey was conducted before and after the disruption in 42 countries, interviewing 266,983 adults either before or after the disruption. The individual-level data are combined with national-level data on culture, amenable to hierarchical linear modeling. People’s financing of family-related entrepreneurs and especially of non-family-related entrepreneurs are found to have declined with the COVID-19 pandemic. However, culture provides resilience, in that the declining funding of family-related entrepreneurs was alleviated where the culture supports family businesses, and the declining funding of non-family-related entrepreneurs was alleviated in societies with a secular–rational culture. The findings contribute to contextualizing business angel financing temporally, as embedded in time before and after the COVID-19 pandemic disruption, and societally, as embedded in culture providing resilience.

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Civil Society and the Legacies of Dictatorship

World Politics ◽

10.1353/wp.2008.0001 ◽

2007 ◽

Vol 59 (4) ◽

pp. 539-567 ◽

Cited By ~ 53

Author(s):

Michael Bernhard ◽

Ekrem Karakoç

Keyword(s):

Civil Society ◽

Hierarchical Linear Modeling ◽

National Level ◽

World Values Survey ◽

Organizational Life ◽

Linear Modeling ◽

Individual Level ◽

Civil Society Participation ◽

Level Data ◽

Different Types

The literature on civil society in postcommunist regimes highlights its weakness as compared with civil society in other democracies. In this article the authors make a general argument on how different patterns of antecedent dictatorship affect the development of civil society across a range of democracies. They examine the slow emergence of two behaviors associated with a robust civil society—participation in organizational life and in protest—and explain variation across countries as a function of regime history. They draw their individual-level data from the World Values Survey and analyze the behavior of over forty-one thousand citizens from forty-two democracies. Using methods of hierarchical linear modeling to control for both national-level and individual-level factors, the authors find that different types of dictatorship and variation in their duration produce different negative legacies for the development of civil society.

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A Multilevel Analysis of Sibling Physical Activity

Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology ◽

10.1123/jsep.26.1.57 ◽

2004 ◽

Vol 26 (1) ◽

pp. 57-68 ◽

Cited By ~ 22

Author(s):

Susan C. Duncan ◽

Terry E. Duncan ◽

Lisa A. Strycker ◽

Nigel R. Chaumeton

Keyword(s):

Physical Activity ◽

Hierarchical Linear Modeling ◽

Model Data ◽

Linear Modeling ◽

Individual Level ◽

Parent Status ◽

The Family ◽

Family Level ◽

The Individual ◽

Physical Activity Facilities

Typical studies of youth physical activity ignore the dependence among family members, examining only individual levels of data rather than individual and family levels. The current study examined physical activity among siblings (mean age = 12.2 years), using hierarchical linear modeling. Individual-and family-level covariates of physical activity were included in the model. Data from 930 siblings nested within 371 families were analyzed in a four-level multilevel design. Results indicated that siblings were similar in their levels of physical activity, and that levels of physical activity varied across families. At the individual level, age was a significant predictor of physical activity. At the family level, higher levels of family support were related to higher levels of sibling physical activity, as were single-parent status and higher income. Perceptions of neighborhood opportunities and observed neighborhood physical activity facilities were negatively related to family levels of physical activity.

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Missing Data in Research on Youth and Family Programs

Psychological Reports ◽

10.1177/00332941211026851 ◽

2021 ◽

pp. 003329412110268

Author(s):

Jaime Ballard ◽

Adeya Richmond ◽

Suzanne van den Hoogenhof ◽

Lynne Borden ◽

Daniel Francis Perkins

Keyword(s):

Missing Data ◽

Statistical Methods ◽

Self Report ◽

Program Participation ◽

Multilevel Data ◽

Individual Level ◽

Level Data ◽

Before And After ◽

Post Test ◽

The Individual

Background Multilevel data can be missing at the individual level or at a nested level, such as family, classroom, or program site. Increased knowledge of higher-level missing data is necessary to develop evaluation design and statistical methods to address it. Methods Participants included 9,514 individuals participating in 47 youth and family programs nationwide who completed multiple self-report measures before and after program participation. Data were marked as missing or not missing at the item, scale, and wave levels for both individuals and program sites. Results Site-level missing data represented a substantial portion of missing data, ranging from 0–46% of missing data at pre-test and 35–71% of missing data at post-test. Youth were the most likely to be missing data, although site-level data did not differ by the age of participants served. In this dataset youth had the most surveys to complete, so their missing data could be due to survey fatigue. Conclusions Much of the missing data for individuals can be explained by the site not administering those questions or scales. These results suggest a need for statistical methods that account for site-level missing data, and for research design methods to reduce the prevalence of site-level missing data or reduce its impact. Researchers can generate buy-in with sites during the community collaboration stage, assessing problematic items for revision or removal and need for ongoing site support, particularly at post-test. We recommend that researchers conducting multilevel data report the amount and mechanism of missing data at each level.

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Factors Determining Income among Real Estate Salespersons: The Impacts of Individual Conditions, Franchises, and Regular Chains

International Journal of Economics and Finance ◽

10.5539/ijef.v7n11p94 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 7 (11) ◽

pp. 94

Author(s):

Chun-Chang Lee ◽

Cheng-Huang Tung ◽

Yu-Heng Lee ◽

Shu-Man You

Keyword(s):

Real Estate ◽

Hierarchical Linear Modeling ◽

Positive Impact ◽

Working Hours ◽

Education Level ◽

Linear Modeling ◽

Individual Level ◽

The Individual ◽

The Given ◽

Regular Chains

<p>This study explores the factors that affect the incomes of real estate salespersons by applying hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) to investigate the incomes of real estate salespersons in Kaohsiung. A total of 510 questionnaires were distributed to large chain housing agencies, of which a total of 319 effective samples were retrieved from 54 branch stores, for an effective return rate of 62.55%. The empirical results showed that individual incomes vary significantly from store to store. About 4.8% of the variation in individual incomes was due to differences among different branch stores. The individual income of a real estate salesperson is also significantly affected by individual-level factors such as age, working hours, and working experience. The marginal impact of education level, age, working hours, and working experience on real estate salesperson income is moderated by the type of store at which the given salesperson works. In addition, a branch store’s location has a direct, significant, and positive impact on a real estate salesperson’s income.</p>

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Hypothesized, Directly-Coded Curve Shapes in Growth Curve Analysis: An Example

Journal of Methods and Measurement in the Social Sciences ◽

10.2458/v3i2.16476 ◽

2013 ◽

Vol 3 (2) ◽

pp. 13 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Patricia M. Herman ◽

Lee Sechrest

Keyword(s):

Hierarchical Linear Modeling ◽

Growth Curve ◽

Degrees Of Freedom ◽

Growth Curves ◽

Curve Analysis ◽

Small Samples ◽

Growth Curve Analysis ◽

Linear Modeling ◽

Individual Level ◽

The Individual

Growth curve analysis provides important informational benefits regarding intervention outcomes over time. Rarely, however, should outcome trajectories be assumed to be linear. Instead, both the shape and the slope of the growth curve can be estimated. Non-linear growth curves are usually modeled by including either higher-order time variables or orthogonal polynomial contrast codes. Each has limitations (multicollinearity with the first, a lack of coefficient interpretability with the second, and a loss of degrees of freedom with both) and neither encourages direct testing of alternative hypothesized curve shapes. Especially in studies with relatively small samples it is likely to be useful to preserve as much information as possible at the individual level. This article presents a step-by-step example of the use and testing of hypothesized curve shapes in the estimation of growth curves using hierarchical linear modeling for a small intervention study. DOI:10.2458/azu_jmmss_v3i2_herman

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Research on the Innovation Method of HRM Based on Information Technology

Applied Mechanics and Materials ◽

10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.687-691.4485 ◽

2014 ◽

Vol 687-691 ◽

pp. 4485-4488

Author(s):

Man Jing Zhang

Keyword(s):

Firm Performance ◽

Hierarchical Linear Modeling ◽

Psychological Contract ◽

High Performance ◽

Affective Commitment ◽

Organizational Level ◽

Linear Modeling ◽

Individual Level ◽

Relational Contract ◽

The Individual

As an organization s strategy to manage the employment relationship, high-performance work system (HPWS) may lead to superior firm performance and favorable employee outcomes through cultivating the relational aspects of employee’s psychological contract. In this study, we investigated the processes (mediation and moderation) linking HPWS and outcomes at both the organizational and individual levels. Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) analysis on a sample of 1129 employees from 92 firms in the Pearl River Delta of China indicated that HPWS was associated with increased firm performance and decreased turnover rate at the organizational level, and relational contract fully mediated the cross-level relationships between HPWS and employees affective commitment and in-role performance at the individual level. In addition, perceived supervisor support moderated the HPWS and relational contract relationship. We discuss theoretical and practical implications to end of this paper.

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Affective and Cognitive Trust as Mediators in the Influence of Leader Motivating Language on Personal Initiative

International Journal of Business Communication ◽

10.1177/2329488420915503 ◽

2020 ◽

pp. 232948842091550

Author(s):

Bin Ling ◽

Yue Guo

Keyword(s):

Hierarchical Linear Modeling ◽

Mainland China ◽

Mediating Effects ◽

Linear Modeling ◽

Cognitive Trust ◽

Individual Level ◽

Personal Initiative ◽

Motivating Language ◽

The Individual ◽

The Relationship

We investigated the mediating effects of affective and cognitive trust on the relationship between leaders’ use of motivating language and employees’ personal initiative. Hierarchical linear modeling was performed on nested data obtained from a sample of 238 participants from mainland China. The results showed that leaders’ motivating language positively influenced employees’ personal initiative at the team level and their affective and cognitive trust at the individual level. Additionally, both affective and cognitive trust significantly mediated the relationship between motivating language used by leaders and personal initiative demonstrated by employees. These findings point to the positive implications for an organization of a mechanism that fosters employees’ trust in their leaders through the translation of motivational language used by leaders into employees’ behavior demonstrating their personal initiative.

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Mapping societal trust and trust in negotiations

International Journal of Conflict Management ◽

10.1108/ijcma-04-2021-0059 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol ahead-of-print (ahead-of-print) ◽

Author(s):

Jingjing Yao ◽

Jeanne M. Brett

Keyword(s):

Hierarchical Linear Modeling ◽

Large Scale ◽

Research Question ◽

National Level ◽

Social Perceptions ◽

Linear Modeling ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Content Type ◽

Individual Level ◽

The Relationship

Purpose It is important to infer and diagnose whether a negotiator is trustworthy. In international negotiations, people may assume that high-trust nations are more likely to produce more trustworthy negotiators. Does this assumption hold universally? This study aims to address this research question by investigating the relationship between national-level societal trust and individual-level trust in negotiations. Design/methodology/approach This study uses a cross-sectional research design and a sample of 910 senior managers from 58 nations or regions. The hypotheses are tested by hierarchical linear modeling. Findings This study draws on the dynamic constructivist theory of culture to propose moderated hypotheses. Results show that societal trust predicts individuals’ social perceptions of attitudinal trust in negotiations, only when cultural face norms are weak rather than strong; societal trust predicts individuals’ social perceptions of behavioral trust in negotiations (i.e. high information sharing and low competitive behavior), only when negotiators process information analytically rather than holistically. Originality/value This study is the first to examine the relationship between national-level societal trust (i.e. generalized trust) and individual-level trust in negotiations (i.e. particularistic trust). It uses a large-scale, multinational sample to show that relying on societal trust to infer trust in negotiations is valid only in Western societies.

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The Multilevel Impacts of Proximate Crime Generators and Attractors on Individual-Level Perceptions of Crime Risk

Crime & Delinquency ◽

10.1177/0011128718763129 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 65 (13) ◽

pp. 1798-1822

Author(s):

Kimberly A. Houser ◽

Eric S. McCord ◽

Evan T. Sorg

Keyword(s):

Hierarchical Linear Modeling ◽

Fear Of Crime ◽

Land Uses ◽

Linear Modeling ◽

Individual Level ◽

Perceptions Of Risk ◽

Perceptions Of Crime ◽

Theoretical Application ◽

Crime Risk ◽

The Individual

Fear of crime has been associated with mental illness, poor physical health, reduced social cohesion and informal social control. Prior studies examining variance in levels of fear have been explained at both the individual and neighborhood levels. Although there is a growing body of research examining the association between specific land uses and perceptions of risk, these studies have generally measured land uses individually rather than in a grouped theoretical context or in terms of homogeneous categories; the latter are hampered by inadequate theoretical application and a failure to recognize differences in the effects of land uses that share common characteristics. Using hierarchical linear modeling, the current study examined whether the proximity and volume of theoretically driven criminogenic land uses influence perceptions of crime risk.

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