Orchard training systems influence early canopy development and light microclimate within apple tree canopies

1993 ◽  
Vol 73 (1) ◽  
pp. 237-248 ◽  
Author(s):  
Frank Kappel ◽  
Harvey A. Quamme
Keyword(s):  
Leaf Area ◽  
Low Light ◽  
Area Index ◽  
Canopy Development ◽  
Training Systems ◽  
Light Levels ◽  
Tree Canopies ◽  
Slender Spindle ◽  
And Training ◽  
Radiation Measurements

Delicious and McIntosh apple trees were trained to five orchard systems: central leader (two spacings), slender spindle, van Roechoudt trellis, and vertical axe. Radiation measurements were taken at the bottom of the canopy throughout the season or at various heights within the canopy after the growth of the canopy was completed. Early in the life of the plantings slender spindle and vertical axe trees of each cultivar had the highest yields expressed on a per hectare basis. By the fifth year of the planting, McIntosh trees trained to the slender spindle and the narrow central leader spacing were producing similar amounts of fruit. Light levels at the bottom of the canopy for some orchard systems were at or below 30% of full sun as early as 25 d after petal fall. Orchard system affected total leaf area and the number of spurs per tree in both 1989 and 1990. The low light levels at the bottom of the canopy reported in this study suggest that attention to pruning and training in the early stages of the orchard development is critical. Key words: Malus domestica, central leader, slender spindle, van Roechoudt trellis, vertical axe, light distribution, leaf area index

scholarly journals The Relationship Between Leaf Area and Light Interception by Spur and Extension Shoot Leaves and Apple Orchard Productivity

HortScience ◽  
2000 ◽  
Vol 35 (7) ◽  
pp. 1202-1206 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jens N. Wünsche ◽  
Alan N. Lakso
Keyword(s):  
Leaf Area ◽  
Production Systems ◽  
Light Interception ◽  
Apple Orchard ◽  
Fruit Yield ◽  
Area Index ◽  
Canopy Development ◽  
Slender Spindle ◽  
The Relationship ◽  
Canopy Light Interception

The study evaluated the relationship of spur vs. extension shoot leaf area and light interception to apple (Malus {XtimesX}domesticaBorkh.) orchard productivity. Fifteen-year-old `Marshall McIntosh'/M.9 trees had significantly greater leaf area and percentage of light interception at 3-5 and 10-12 weeks after full bloom (AFB) than did 4-year-old `Jonagold'/Mark trees. Despite significant increases in leaf area and light interception with canopy development, linear relationships between total, spur, and extension shoot canopy leaf area index (LAI) and 1) light interception and 2) fruit yield were similar at both times. Mean total and spur canopy LAI and light interception were significantly and positively correlated with fruit yield; however, extension shoot LAI and light interception were poorly correlated with yield. In another study total, spur and extension shoot canopy light interception varied widely in five apple production systems: 15-year-old central leader `Redchief Delicious' MM.111, 15-year-old central leader `Redchief Delicious' MM.111/M.9, 16-year-old slender spindle `Marshall McIntosh' M.9, 14-year-old `Jerseymac' M.9 on 4-wire trellis, and 17-year-old slender spindle `MacSpur' M.9. Yields in these orchards were curvilinearly related to total and extension shoot canopy light interception and decreased when total light interception exceeded 60% and extension shoot interception exceeded 25%. Fruit yields were linearly and highly correlated (r2 = 0.78) with spur light interception. The findings support the hypothesis that fruit yields of healthy apple orchards are better correlated with LAI and light interception by spurs than by extension shoots. The results emphasize the importance of open, well-illuminated, spur-rich tree canopies for high productivity.

scholarly journals Varying Density with Constant Rectangularity: I. Effects on Apple Tree Growth and Light Interception in Three Training Systems over Ten Years

HortScience ◽  
2004 ◽  
Vol 39 (3) ◽  
pp. 501-506 ◽  
Author(s):  
Cheryl R. Hampson ◽  
Harvey A. Quamme ◽  
Frank Kappel ◽  
Robert T. Brownlee
Keyword(s):  
Leaf Area ◽  
Tree Height ◽  
Light Interception ◽  
Training System ◽  
Influential Factor ◽  
Planting Density ◽  
Area Index ◽  
Training Systems ◽  
Slender Spindle ◽  
Plot Design

The effect of increasing planting density at constant rectangularity on the vegetative growth and light interception of apple [Malus ×sylvestris (L) var. domestica (Borkh.) Mansf.] trees in three training systems (slender spindle, tall spindle, and Geneva Y trellis) was assessed for 10 years. Five tree densities (from 1125 to 3226 trees/ha) and two cultivars (Royal Gala and Summerland McIntosh) were tested in a fully guarded split-split plot design. Planting density was the most influential factor. As tree density increased, tree size decreased, and leaf area index and light interception increased. A planting density between 1800 and 2200 trees/ha (depending on training system) was needed to achieve at least 50% light interception under the conditions of this trial. Training system altered tree height and canopy diameter, but not total scion weight. Training system began to influence light interception in the sixth leaf, when the Y trellis system intercepted more light than either spindle form. Trees trained to the Y trellis tended to have more spurs and a lower proportion of total leaf area in shoot leaves than the other two systems. The slender and tall spindles were similar in most aspects of performance. Tall spindles did not intercept more light than slender spindles. `Royal Gala' and `Summerland McIntosh' trees intercepted about the same amount of light. `Royal Gala' had greater spur leaf area per tree than `Summerland McIntosh', but the cultivars were similar in shoot leaf area per tree and spur density.

scholarly journals Light Quality Environment and Photomorphological Responses of Young Olive Trees

Horticulturae ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 7 (10) ◽  
pp. 369
Author(s):  
Federico J. Ladux ◽  
Eduardo R. Trentacoste ◽  
Peter S. Searles ◽  
M. Cecilia Rousseaux
Keyword(s):  
Leaf Area ◽  
Light Quality ◽  
Plant Morphology ◽  
Cultivar Differences ◽  
Crop Species ◽  
Area Index ◽  
Canopy Development ◽  
Morphological Responses ◽  
Olive Trees ◽  
G Ratio

Tree densities have increased greatly in olive orchards over the last few decades. In many annual crop species, increased density reduces the horizontal red/far-red (R/FR) and blue/green (B/G) ratios during canopy development even before direct shading occurs, and such changes are known to alter plant morphology. This study with olive trees evaluated: (1) whether the leaf area index (LAI) of neighboring trees modifies the light quality environment prior to a tree being directly shaded and (2) the potential morphological responses of three olive cultivars to changes in light quality. Increasing LAI using different spatial arrangements of potted, three-year-old trees reduced the horizontal R/FR ratio more than that of the B/G ratio. Cultivar-specific responses to low R/FR ratio were observed for individual leaf area and aboveground/belowground biomass ratio using laterally positioned FR mirrors or green fences. No statistically significant responses were detected in response to green vegetation fences that reduced both horizontal R/FR and B/G ratios, but a cluster analysis grouped together the overall morphological responses to both FR mirrors and green fences. These results in olive trees suggest that cultivar differences in response to light quality may be relevant for understanding adaptation to dense orchards and identifying cultivars best suited to them.

scholarly journals Leaf and Crown Optical Properties of Five Early-, Mid- and Late-Successional Temperate Tree Species and Their Relation to Sapling Light Demand

Forests ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 10 (10) ◽  
pp. 925 ◽  
Author(s):  
Marc Hagemeier ◽  
Christoph Leuschner
Keyword(s):  
Optical Properties ◽  
Leaf Area ◽  
Tree Species ◽  
Forest Floor ◽  
The Sun ◽  
Area Index ◽  
Minimum Light ◽  
Tree Canopies ◽  
Successional Species ◽  
Shade Leaves

The optical properties of leaves and canopies determine the availability of radiation for photosynthesis and the penetration of light through tree canopies. How leaf absorptance, reflectance and transmittance and radiation transmission through tree canopies change with forest succession is not well understood. We measured the leaf optical properties in the photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) range of five Central European early-, mid- and late-successional temperate broadleaf tree species and studied the minimum light demand of the lowermost shade leaves and of the species’ offspring. Leaf absorptance in the 350–720 nm range varied between c. 70% and 77% in the crown of all five species with only a minor variation from the sun to the shade crown and between species. However, specific absorptance (absorptance normalized by mass per leaf area) increased about threefold from sun to shade leaves with decreasing leaf mass area (LMA) in the late-successional species (Carpinus betulus L., Tilia cordata Mill., Fagus sylvatica L.), while it was generally lower in the early- to mid-successional species (Betula pendula Roth, Quercus petraea (Matt.)Liebl.), where it changed only a little from sun to shade crown. Due to a significant increase in leaf area index, canopy PAR transmittance to the forest floor decreased from early- to late-successional species from ~15% to 1%–3% of incident PAR, linked to a decrease in the minimum light demand of the lowermost shade leaves (from ~20 to 1%–2%) and of the species’ saplings (from ~20 to 3%–4%). The median light intensity on the forest floor under a closed canopy was in all species lower than the saplings’ minimum light demand. We conclude that the optical properties of the sun leaves are very similar among early-, mid- and late-successional tree species, while the shade leaves of these groups differ not only morphologically, but also in terms of the resource investment needed to achieve high PAR absorptance.

Principal Canopy Factors of Sweet Corn and Relationships to Competitive Ability with Wild-Proso Millet (Panicum miliaceum)

Weed Science ◽  
2009 ◽  
Vol 57 (3) ◽  
pp. 296-303 ◽  
Author(s):  
Yim F. So ◽  
Martin M. Williams ◽  
Jerald K. Pataky ◽  
Adam S. Davis
Keyword(s):  
Leaf Area Index ◽  
Leaf Area ◽  
Competitive Ability ◽  
Sweet Corn ◽  
Canopy Closure ◽  
Crop Canopy ◽  
Area Index ◽  
Canopy Development ◽  
Proso Millet ◽  
Principal Factors

Univariate analyses fail to account for covariance among phenomorphological traits implicated in crop competitive ability. A more complete analysis of cultivar–weed interactions would reduce a number of important traits to a few underlying principal factors responsible for sweet corn competitiveness. Twenty-three commercial sweet corn hybrids from nine seed companies were grown in the presence and absence of wild-proso millet to (1) quantify the extent to which phenomorphological traits vary in sweet corn, (2) identify underlying principal factors that describe variation in crop canopy development, and (3) determine functional relationships between crop canopy factors and competitive ability. A principal component factor analysis revealed that 7 of the 18 weed-free crop traits measured at silking loaded highly (0.65 to 0.90) into the first factor, including plant height, shoot biomass, per plant leaf area, leaf area index, and intercepted light, as well as thermal time from emergence to silking and emergence to maturity. All seven traits were highly correlated (0.38 to 0.93) and were interpreted as a “late canopy and maturity” factor. Another five traits formed two additional principal factors that were interpreted as an early “seedling quality” factor (e.g., kernel mass, seedling vigor, and height at two-leaf stage) and a mid-season “canopy closure” factor (e.g., leaf area index and intercepted photosynthetically active radiation at six-leaf stage). Relationships between principal factors and competitive abilities were quantified using least-squares linear regression. Cultivars with greater loadings in the late canopy and maturity and canopy closure factors were more competitive with wild-proso millet. In contrast, crop competitive ability declined with cultivars that loaded highly into the seedling quality factor. The analyses showed that sweet corn's ability to endure weed interference and suppress weed fitness relates uniquely to three underlying principal factors that capture crop canopy development around emergence and near canopy closure and during the reproductive phase.

Effect of Vineyard Row Orientation on Growth and Phenology of Glyphosate-Resistant and Glyphosate-Susceptible Horseweed (Conyza canadensis)

Weed Science ◽  
2011 ◽  
Vol 59 (1) ◽  
pp. 55-60 ◽  
Author(s):  
Marisa Alcorta ◽  
Matthew W. Fidelibus ◽  
Kerri L. Steenwerth ◽  
Anil Shrestha
Keyword(s):  
Leaf Area ◽  
Growth And Development ◽  
Dry Weight ◽  
Conyza Canadensis ◽  
Light Penetration ◽  
Low Light ◽  
Weed Growth ◽  
Light Levels ◽  
East West ◽  
Number Of Seeds

Horseweed has become increasingly common and difficult to control in San Joaquin Valley vineyards, due in part, to the evolution of glyphosate resistance. The development of weed-suppressive vineyard designs in which the trellis design, spacing, and row orientation combine to cast dense shade on the weed canopy zone (WCZ) may reduce weed growth. The relevance of such a system to horseweed, which can grow to be as tall, or taller, than a typical grapevine trellis, is uncertain. Also unknown is whether a glyphosate-resistant (GR) biotype and glyphosate-susceptible (GS) biotype would perform similarly under such conditions. Therefore, we compared the growth and development of two potted horseweed biotypes (GR and GS) in vinerows oriented east–west (EW) and north–south (NS). Rows oriented EW allowed less light penetration to the WCZ than NS rows throughout the study, and horseweed biotypes responded to low light levels by producing leaves with larger specific leaf area and leaf area ratios than those in the NS rows. Also, the leaf, stem, and root dry weight of the horseweed plants in the EW rows was reduced by 30% compared to the horseweed plants in NS rows. Leaf number was also reduced in the horseweed plants in the EW rows, but only for the GS biotype. Row orientation did not affect phenological development or the number of seeds produced by the GR or GS biotypes, but the GR biotype budded, flowered, and set seed approximately 1 wk earlier than the GS biotype. Thus, shade associated with the EW vinerows reduced horseweed growth, but not fecundity, and the GR biotype reached reproductive maturity earlier than the GS biotype.

scholarly journals Tree Structure and Pruning Response of Six Peach Growth Forms

1994 ◽  
Vol 119 (3) ◽  
pp. 378-382 ◽  
Author(s):  
D. Bassi ◽  
A. Dima ◽  
R. Scorza
Keyword(s):  
Prunus Persica ◽  
Medium Density ◽  
Growth Forms ◽  
Training Requirements ◽  
Training Systems ◽  
Large Numbers ◽  
Slender Spindle ◽  
Branch Density ◽  
And Training ◽  
Intermediate Amount

The response of young, nonbearing peach [Prunus persica (L.) Batsch] trees to pruning was studied in six distinct growth forms including semidwarf, spur-type, upright, columnar or pillar, weeping, and standard. Two years after field planting, pillar and upright trees were trained to slender spindle. Semidwarf, spur-type, and standard trees were trained to the open or delayed vase form. Weeping trees were pruned in a manner similar to the Lepage hedge for pear. Branch density before pruning was highest in semidwarf, spur-type, and upright trees and lowest in pillar trees. Standard, semidwarf, and spur-type trees reacted similarly to pruning, but semidwarf trees produced as much wood in the following season as had been pruned off, and produced large numbers of fruiting branches. The small size of semidwarf trees suggested their use for medium-density plantings (MDPs). Pillar trees needed only light pruning. No major cuts were necessary and many fruiting branches were produced even on nonpruned trees. The pillar canopy was 60% thinner and required 50% fewer pruning cuts than the standard canopy and may be particularly suited to high-density plantings (HDPs). The upper canopy of weeping trees grew more than most other forms. They were intermediate in branch density and required an intermediate amount of pruning. Most striking was the unique canopy form of weeping trees, which may be used in developing new training systems. The results of this study suggest that new growth forms have the potential to reduce pruning and training requirements for peach, particularly in MDPs and HDPs. This potential suggests further investigation and exploitation of alternate peach tree growth forms.

scholarly journals Optimization of Light Interception, Leaf Area and Yield in “WA38”: Comparisons among Training Systems, Rootstocks and Pruning Techniques

Agronomy ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 10 (5) ◽  
pp. 689 ◽  
Author(s):  
Brendon Anthony ◽  
Sara Serra ◽  
Stefano Musacchi
Keyword(s):  
Leaf Area ◽  
Management Strategy ◽  
New Technologies ◽  
Light Interception ◽  
Alternate Bearing ◽  
Area Index ◽  
Training Systems ◽  
Optimal Thresholds ◽  
Proper Training ◽  
Pruning Techniques

As apple orchards have transitioned to high-density plantings, proper training systems are required to manage increased leaf area. Leaf area index (LAI) is defined as the ratio between leaf area to ground area (m2/m2) and can infer orchard health, light relationships and productivity. New technologies enable rapid assessments of LAI and light interception (LI) in the orchard. In this study, LAI, LI, and productivity were assessed across two training systems (Spindle and V), two rootstocks (Geneva 41® (G41) and Malling 9—Nic29 (Nic29)) and two pruning techniques (“click” and bending) in 2016 and 2017. The objective of this study was to determine a management strategy for “WA38” to meet optimal levels for LAI (1.2–2.0) and light interception (65–75%). Higher light interception was measured in V compared to Spindle and in G41 compared to Nic29 in both years. Minimal differences in LAI and light interception were detected across pruning techniques. In “WA38” the “click” technique maintained more consistent yields than bending. In both years, the Spindle-Nic29-“click” combination maintained optimal thresholds for LAI (1.93 and 1.48), light interception (66% and 68%) and consistent yields. This sequence helps mitigate “blind wood” and alternate bearing, while optimizing leaf area and light in “WA38”.

Effects of nitrogen supply on canopy development of maize and sunflower

2011 ◽  
Vol 62 (12) ◽  
pp. 1045 ◽  
Author(s):  
A. M. Massignam ◽  
S. C. Chapman ◽  
G. L. Hammer ◽  
S. Fukai
Keyword(s):  
Leaf Area ◽  
Plant Density ◽  
Carbon Assimilation ◽  
Leaf Nitrogen ◽  
Area Index ◽  
Canopy Development ◽  
N Limitation ◽  
N Supply ◽  
Area Development ◽  
Leaf Area Development

Nitrogen (N) limitation reduces canopy carbon assimilation by directly reducing leaf photosynthesis, and by developmentally reducing the rate of new leaf area development and accelerating leaf senescence. Effective use of N for biomass production under N limitation may be considered to be a result of a trade-off between the use of N to maintain high levels of specific leaf nitrogen (SLN the amount of N per unit leaf area) for high photosynthetic rate versus using N to maintain leaf area development (leaf area index – LAI). The objective here is to compare the effects of N supply on the dynamics of LAI and SLN for two crops, maize (Zea mays L.) and sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) that contrast in the structure and development of their canopy. Three irrigated experiments imposed different levels of N and plant density. While LAI in both maize and sunflower was reduced under N limitation, leaf area development was more responsive to N supply in sunflower than maize. Observations near anthesis showed that sunflower tended to maintain SLN and adjust leaf area under reduced N supply, whereas maize tended to maintain leaf area and adjust SLN first, and, when this was not sufficient, SLN was also reduced. The two species responded differently to variation in N supply, and the implication of these different strategies for crop adaptation and management is discussed.

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