scholarly journals Organic matter and sediment properties determine in-lake variability of sediment CO<sub>2</sub> and CH<sub>4</sub> production and emissions of a small and shallow lake

2020 ◽  
Vol 17 (20) ◽  
pp. 5057-5078
Author(s):  
Leandra Stephanie Emilia Praetzel ◽  
Nora Plenter ◽  
Sabrina Schilling ◽  
Marcel Schmiedeskamp ◽  
Gabriele Broll ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Organic Matter ◽  
Negative Correlation ◽  
Sediment Quality ◽  
Significant Negative Correlation ◽  
Electron Acceptors ◽  
Co2 Production ◽  
Emission Rates ◽  
Production Rates ◽  
Sediment Properties ◽  
Ch4 Production

Abstract. Inland waters, particularly small and shallow lakes, are significant sources of carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) to the atmosphere. However, the spatial in-lake heterogeneity of CO2 and CH4 production processes and their drivers in the sediment remain poorly studied. We measured potential CO2 and CH4 production in slurry incubations from 12 sites within the small and shallow crater lake Windsborn in Germany, as well as fluxes at the water–atmosphere interface of intact sediment core incubations from four sites. Production rates were highly variable and ranged from 7.2 to 38.5 µmol CO2 gC−1 d−1 and from 5.4 to 33.5 µmol CH4 gC−1 d−1. Fluxes ranged from 4.5 to 26.9 mmol CO2 m−2 d−1 and from 0 to 9.8 mmol CH4 m−2 d−1. Both CO2 and CH4 production rates and the CH4 fluxes exhibited a significant and negative correlation (p<0.05, ρ<−0.6) with a prevalence of recalcitrant organic matter (OM) compounds in the sediment as identified by Fourier-transformed infrared spectroscopy. The carbon / nitrogen ratio exhibited a significant negative correlation (p<0.01, ρ=-0.88) with CH4 fluxes but not with production rates or CO2 fluxes. The availability of inorganic (nitrate, sulfate, ferric iron) and organic (humic acids) electron acceptors failed to explain differences in CH4 production rates, assuming a competitive suppression, but observed non-methanogenic CO2 production could be explained up to 91 % by prevalent electron acceptors. We did not find clear relationships between OM quality, the thermodynamics of methanogenic pathways (acetoclastic vs. hydrogenotrophic) and electron-accepting capacity of the OM. Differences in CH4 fluxes were interestingly to a large part explained by grain size distribution (p<0.05, ρ=±0.65). Surprisingly though, sediment gas storage, potential production rates and water–atmosphere fluxes were decoupled from each other and did not show any correlations. Our results show that within a small lake, sediment CO2 and CH4 production shows significant spatial variability which is mainly driven by spatial differences in the degradability of the sediment OM. We highlight that studies on production rates and sediment quality need to be interpreted with care, though, in terms of deducing emission rates and patterns as approaches based on production rates only neglect physical sediment properties and production and oxidation processes in the water column as major controls on actual emissions.

Organic sulfur and organic matter redox processes contribute to electron flow in anoxic incubations of peat

2016 ◽  
Vol 13 (5) ◽  
pp. 816 ◽  
Author(s):  
Zhi-Guo Yu ◽  
Jörg Göttlicher ◽  
Ralph Steininger ◽  
Klaus-Holger Knorr
Keyword(s):  
Carbon Dioxide ◽  
Organic Matter ◽  
Electron Acceptor ◽  
Electron Acceptors ◽  
Organic Sulfur ◽  
Co2 Production ◽  
Bacterial Sulfate Reduction ◽  
Sulfur Species ◽  
Ch4 Production

Environmental contextThe extent to which organic matter decomposition generates carbon dioxide or methane in anaerobic ecosystems is determined by the presence or absence of particular electron acceptors. Evaluating carbon dioxide and methane production in anaerobic incubation of peat, we found that organic matter predominated as an electron acceptor over considered inorganic electron acceptors. We also observed changes in organic sulfur speciation suggesting a contribution of organic sulfur species to the electron-accepting capacity of organic matter. AbstractAn often observed excess of CO2 production over CH4 production in freshwater ecosystems presumably results from a direct or indirect role of organic matter (OM) as electron acceptor, possibly supported by a cycling of oxidised and reduced sulfur species. To confirm the role of OM electron-accepting capacities (EACOM) in anaerobic microbial respiration and to elucidate internal sulfur cycling, peat soil virtually devoid of inorganic electron acceptors was incubated under anaerobic conditions. Thereby, production of CO2 and CH4 at a cumulative ratio of 3.2:1 was observed. From excess CO2 production and assuming a nominal oxidation state of carbon in OM of zero, we calculated a net consumption rate of EACOM of 2.36µmol electron (e–)cm–3day–1. Addition of sulfate (SO42–) increased CO2 and suppressed CH4 production. Moreover, subtracting the EAC provided though SO42–, net consumption rates of EACOM had increased to 3.88–4.85µmol e–cm–3day–1, presumably owing to a re-oxidation of sulfide by OM at sites otherwise not accessible for microbial reduction. As evaluated by sulfur K-edge X-ray absorption near-edge structure spectroscopy, bacterial sulfate reduction presumably involved not only a recycling of inorganic sulfur species, but also a sulfurisation of OM, yielding reduced organic sulfur, and changes in oxidised organic sulfur species. Organic matter thus contributes to anaerobic respiration: (i) directly by EAC of redox-active functional groups; (ii) directly by oxidised organic sulfur; and (iii) indirectly by re-oxidation of sulfide to maintain bacterial sulfate reduction.

scholarly journals Organic matter and sediment properties determine in-lake variability of sediment CO<sub>2</sub> and CH<sub>4</sub> production and emissions of a small and shallow lake

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Leandra Stephanie Emilia Praetzel ◽  
Nora Plenter ◽  
Sabrina Schilling ◽  
Marcel Schmiedeskamp ◽  
Gabriele Broll ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Organic Matter ◽  
Shallow Lakes ◽  
Shallow Lake ◽  
Crater Lake ◽  
Inland Waters ◽  
Production Rates ◽  
Sediment Properties ◽  
Ch4 Production ◽  
Production Processes ◽  
Sources Of Co2

Abstract. Inland waters are significant sources of CO2 and CH4 to the atmosphere, following recent studies this is particularly the case for small and shallow lakes. The spatial in-lake heterogeneity of CO2 and CH4 production processes and their drivers in the sediment yet remain poorly studied. We thus measured potential CO2 and CH4 production in sediment incubations from 12 sites within the small and shallow crater lake Windsborn in Germany as well as fluxes at the water-atmosphere interface at four sites. Production rates were highly variable and ranged from 7.2 and 38.5 µmol CO2 g C−1 d−1 and from 5.4 to 33.5 µmol CH4 g C−1 d−1. Fluxes lay between 4.5 and 26.9 mmol CO2 m−2 d−1 and between 0 and 9.8 mmol CH4 m−2 d−1. Both CO2 and CH4 production rates and CH4 fluxes were significantly negative (p 

scholarly journals Carbon dioxide and methane fluxes at the air–sea interface of Red Sea mangroves

2018 ◽  
Vol 15 (17) ◽  
pp. 5365-5375 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mallory A. Sea ◽  
Neus Garcias-Bonet ◽  
Vincent Saderne ◽  
Carlos M. Duarte
Keyword(s):  
Carbon Dioxide ◽  
Organic Matter ◽  
Red Sea ◽  
Ghg Emissions ◽  
Eastern Coast ◽  
Relative Role ◽  
Emission Rates ◽  
Mangrove Forests ◽  
Ch4 Production

Abstract. Mangrove forests are highly productive tropical and subtropical coastal systems that provide a variety of ecosystem services, including the sequestration of carbon. While mangroves are reported to be the most intense carbon sinks among all forests, they can also support large emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs), such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4), to the atmosphere. However, data derived from arid mangrove systems like the Red Sea are lacking. Here, we report net emission rates of CO2 and CH4 from mangroves along the eastern coast of the Red Sea and assess the relative role of these two gases in supporting total GHG emissions to the atmosphere. Diel CO2 and CH4 emission rates ranged from −3452 to 7500 µmol CO2 m−2 d−1 and from 0.9 to 13.3 µmol CH4 m−2 d−1 respectively. The rates reported here fall within previously reported ranges for both CO2 and CH4, but maximum CO2 and CH4 flux rates in the Red Sea are 10- to 100-fold below those previously reported for mangroves elsewhere. Based on the isotopic composition of the CO2 and CH4 produced, we identified potential origins of the organic matter that support GHG emissions. In all but one mangrove stand, GHG emissions appear to be supported by organic matter from mixed sources, potentially reducing CO2 fluxes and instead enhancing CH4 production, a finding that highlights the importance of determining the origin of organic matter in GHG emissions. Methane was the main source of CO2 equivalents despite the comparatively low emission rates in most of the sampled mangroves and therefore deserves careful monitoring in this region. By further resolving GHG fluxes in arid mangroves, we will better ascertain the role of these forests in global carbon budgets.

scholarly journals Organic sediment formed during inundation of a degraded fen grassland emits large fluxes of CH<sub>4</sub> and CO<sub>2</sub>

2011 ◽  
Vol 8 (6) ◽  
pp. 1539-1550 ◽  
Author(s):  
M. Hahn-Schöfl ◽  
D. Zak ◽  
M. Minke ◽  
J. Gelbrecht ◽  
J. Augustin ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Organic Matter ◽  
Plant Litter ◽  
Electron Acceptors ◽  
Sediment Layer ◽  
Organic Substrates ◽  
Peat Layer ◽  
Ch4 Production ◽  
Fresh Plant ◽  
Fresh Organic Matter ◽  
Organic Sediment

Abstract. Peatland restoration by inundation of drained areas can alter local greenhouse gas emissions as CO2 and CH4. Factors that can influence these emissions include the quality and amount of substrates available for anaerobic degradation processes and the sources and availability of electron acceptors. In order to learn about possible sources of high CO2 and CH4. emissions from a rewetted degraded fen grassland, we performed incubation experiments that tested the effects of fresh plant litter in the flooded peats on pore water chemistry and CO2 and CH4. production and emission. The position in the soil profile of the pre-existing drained peat substrate affected initial rates of anaerobic CO2 production subsequent to flooding, with the uppermost peat layer producing the greatest specific rates of CO2 evolution. CH4 production rates depended on the availability of electron acceptors and was significant only when sulfate concentrations were reduced in the pore waters. Very high specific rates of both CO2 (maximum of 412 mg C d−1 kg−1 C) and CH4 production (788 mg C d−1 kg−1 C) were observed in a new sediment layer that accumulated over the 2.5 years since the site was flooded. This new sediment layer was characterized by overall low C content, but represented a mixture of sand and relatively easily decomposable plant litter from reed canary grass killed by flooding. Samples that excluded this new sediment layer but included intact roots remaining from flooded grasses had specific rates of CO2 (max. 28 mg C d−1 kg−1 C) and CH4 (max. 34 mg C d−1 kg−1 C) production that were 10–20 times lower than for the new sediment layer and were comparable to those of a newly flooded upper peat layer. Lowest rates of anaerobic CO2 and CH4 production (range of 4–8 mg C d−1 kg−1 C and <1 mg C d−1 kg−1 C) were observed when all fresh organic matter sources (plant litter and roots) were excluded. In conclusion, the presence of fresh organic substrates such as plant and root litter originating from plants killed by inundation has a high potential for CH4 production, whereas peat without any fresh plant-derived material is relatively inert. Significant anaerobic CO2 and CH4 production in peat only occurs when some labile organic matter is available, e.g. from remaining roots or root exudates.

Microbial Activity in Soils of Vegetation-Growing Concrete Slopes

2012 ◽  
Vol 599 ◽  
pp. 124-127
Author(s):  
Cheng Hu Zhang ◽  
Ting Ting Song ◽  
Ju Liu ◽  
Hui Juan Xia ◽  
Jian Zhu Wang
Keyword(s):  
Organic Matter ◽  
Soil Organic Matter ◽  
Microbial Biomass ◽  
Negative Correlation ◽  
Microbial Biomass Carbon ◽  
Significant Negative Correlation ◽  
Concrete Technology ◽  
Microbial Biomass Nitrogen ◽  
Natural Restoration ◽  
Microbial Quotient

Natural restoration slope and vegetation-growing concrete slope were selected as plots. Soil water content (SWC), pH, and soil organic matter, total nitrogen content (TN), total organic carbon (TOC), microbial biomass carbon (MBC), microbial biomass nitrogen (MBN), basal respiration, microbial quotient and metabolic quotient (qCO2) were analyzed. The main results show that: Soil organic matter, TN and MBC of 0-10 cm soil in the natural restoration slope are significantly lower than that in the vegetation-growing concrete slopes at 0.05 level. Both MBC and MBN show a highly significant positive correlation with soil organic matter and TN. Microbial quotient shows a highly significant negative correlation with TOC and MBN, and shows a significant negative correlation with MBC. The qCO2 shows a highly significant negative correlation with pH, and a significant negative correlation with MBC. The vegetation-growing concrete technology can improve the soil ecosystem in the impaired slope.

scholarly journals Belowground in situ redox dynamics and methanogenesis recovery in a degraded fen during dry-wet cycles and flooding

2012 ◽  
Vol 9 (8) ◽  
pp. 11655-11704 ◽  
Author(s):  
C. Estop-Aragonés ◽  
K.-H. Knorr ◽  
C. Blodau
Keyword(s):  
Organic Matter ◽  
Water Table ◽  
Methane Production ◽  
Solid Phase ◽  
Electron Flow ◽  
Organic Matter Content ◽  
Matter Content ◽  
Electron Acceptors ◽  
Oxygen Penetration ◽  
Ch4 Production

Abstract. Climate change induced drying and flooding may alter the redox conditions of organic matter decomposition in peat soils. The seasonal and intermittent changes in pore water solutes (NO3−, Fe2+, SO42−, H2S, acetate) and dissolved soil gases (CO2, O2, CH4, H2) under natural water table fluctuations were compared to the response under a reinforced drying and flooding in fen peats. Oxygen penetration during dryings led to CO2 and CH4 degassing and to a regeneration of dissolved electron acceptors (NO3−, Fe3+ and SO42−). Drying intensity controlled the extent of the electron acceptor regeneration. Iron was rapidly reduced and sulfate pools ~ 1 mmol L−1 depleted upon rewetting and CH4 did not substantially accumulate until sulfate levels declined to ~ 100 μmoll−1. The post-rewetting recovery of soil methane concentrations to levels ~ 80 μmoll−1 needed 40–50 days after natural drought. This recovery was prolonged after experimentally reinforced drought. A greater regeneration of electron acceptors during drying was not related to prolonged methanogenesis suppression after rewetting. Peat compaction, solid phase content of reactive iron and total reduced inorganic sulfur and organic matter content controlled oxygen penetration, the regeneration of electron acceptors and the recovery of CH4 production, respectively. Methane production was maintained despite moderate water table decline of 20 cm in denser peats. Flooding led to accumulation of acetate and H2, promoted CH4 production and strengthened the co-occurrence of iron and sulfate reduction and methanogenesis. Mass balances during drying and flooding indicated that an important fraction of the electron flow must have been used for the generation and consumption of electron acceptors in the solid phase or other mechanisms. In contrast to flooding, dry-wet cycles negatively affect methane production on a seasonal scale but this impact might strongly depend on drying intensity and on the peat matrix, whose structure and physical properties influence moisture content.

scholarly journals Lability classification of soil organic matter in the northern permafrost region

2020 ◽  
Vol 17 (2) ◽  
pp. 361-379 ◽  
Author(s):  
Peter Kuhry ◽  
Jiří Bárta ◽  
Daan Blok ◽  
Bo Elberling ◽  
Samuel Faucherre ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Organic Matter ◽  
Global Warming ◽  
Soil Organic Matter ◽  
Dry Weight ◽  
Soil Samples ◽  
Co2 Production ◽  
Permafrost Region ◽  
Production Rates ◽  
Incubation Experiments ◽  
The Relationship

Abstract. The large stocks of soil organic carbon (SOC) in soils and deposits of the northern permafrost region are sensitive to global warming and permafrost thawing. The potential release of this carbon (C) as greenhouse gases to the atmosphere does not only depend on the total quantity of soil organic matter (SOM) affected by warming and thawing, but it also depends on its lability (i.e., the rate at which it will decay). In this study we develop a simple and robust classification scheme of SOM lability for the main types of soils and deposits in the northern permafrost region. The classification is based on widely available soil geochemical parameters and landscape unit classes, which makes it useful for upscaling to the entire northern permafrost region. We have analyzed the relationship between C content and C-CO2 production rates of soil samples in two different types of laboratory incubation experiments. In one experiment, ca. 240 soil samples from four study areas were incubated using the same protocol (at 5 ∘C, aerobically) over a period of 1 year. Here we present C release rates measured on day 343 of incubation. These long-term results are compared to those obtained from short-term incubations of ca. 1000 samples (at 12 ∘C, aerobically) from an additional three study areas. In these experiments, C-CO2 production rates were measured over the first 4 d of incubation. We have focused our analyses on the relationship between C-CO2 production per gram dry weight per day (µgC-CO2 gdw−1 d−1) and C content (%C of dry weight) in the samples, but we show that relationships are consistent when using C ∕ N ratios or different production units such as µgC per gram soil C per day (µgC-CO2 gC−1 d−1) or per cm3 of soil per day (µgC-CO2 cm−3 d−1). C content of the samples is positively correlated to C-CO2 production rates but explains less than 50 % of the observed variability when the full datasets are considered. A partitioning of the data into landscape units greatly reduces variance and provides consistent results between incubation experiments. These results indicate that relative SOM lability decreases in the order of Late Holocene eolian deposits to alluvial deposits and mineral soils (including peaty wetlands) to Pleistocene yedoma deposits to C-enriched pockets in cryoturbated soils to peat deposits. Thus, three of the most important SOC storage classes in the northern permafrost region (yedoma, cryoturbated soils and peatlands) show low relative SOM lability. Previous research has suggested that SOM in these pools is relatively undecomposed, and the reasons for the observed low rates of decomposition in our experiments need urgent attention if we want to better constrain the magnitude of the thawing permafrost carbon feedback on global warming.

scholarly journals Belowground in situ redox dynamics and methanogenesis recovery in a degraded fen during dry-wet cycles and flooding

2013 ◽  
Vol 10 (1) ◽  
pp. 421-436 ◽  
Author(s):  
C. Estop-Aragonés ◽  
K.-H. Knorr ◽  
C. Blodau
Keyword(s):  
Organic Matter ◽  
Water Table ◽  
Methane Production ◽  
Solid Phase ◽  
Electron Flow ◽  
Organic Matter Content ◽  
Matter Content ◽  
Electron Acceptors ◽  
Oxygen Penetration ◽  
Ch4 Production

Abstract. Climate change induced drying and flooding may alter the redox conditions of organic matter decomposition in peat soils. The seasonal and intermittent changes in pore water solutes (NO3−, Fe2+, SO42−, H2S, acetate) and dissolved soil gases (CO2, O2, CH4, H2) under natural water table fluctuations were compared to the response under a reinforced drying and flooding in fen peats. Oxygen penetration during dryings led to CO2 and CH4 degassing and to a regeneration of dissolved electron acceptors (NO3−, Fe3+ and SO42−). Drying intensity controlled the extent of the electron acceptor regeneration. Iron was rapidly reduced and sulfate pools ~ 1 mM depleted upon rewetting and CH4 did not substantially accumulate until sulfate levels declined to ~ 100 μmol L−1. The post-rewetting recovery of soil methane concentrations to levels ~ 80 μmol L−1 needed 40–50 days after natural drought. This recovery was prolonged after experimentally reinforced drought. A greater regeneration of electron acceptors during drying was not related to prolonged methanogenesis suppression after rewetting. Peat compaction, solid phase content of reactive iron and total reduced inorganic sulfur and organic matter content controlled oxygen penetration, the regeneration of electron acceptors and the recovery of CH4 production, respectively. Methane production was maintained despite moderate water table decline of 20 cm in denser peats. Flooding led to accumulation of acetate and H2, promoted CH4 production and strengthened the co-occurrence of iron and sulfate reduction and methanogenesis. Mass balances during drying and flooding indicated that an important fraction of the electron flow must have been used for the generation and consumption of electron acceptors in the solid phase or other mechanisms. In contrast to flooding, dry-wet cycles negatively affect methane production on a seasonal scale, but this impact might strongly depend on drying intensity and on the peat matrix, of which structure and physical properties influence moisture content.

scholarly journals Distribution of Available Sulfur in Some Soils of South Chad Irrigation Project Area, Lake Chad Basin, Borno State, Nigeria

2019 ◽  
pp. 1-9
Author(s):  
Goni Makinta ◽  
Adam Lawan Ngala ◽  
Mohammed Kyari Sandabe
Keyword(s):  
Organic Matter ◽  
Sulfur Content ◽  
Negative Correlation ◽  
Organic Matter Content ◽  
Significant Negative Correlation ◽  
Matter Content ◽  
Lake Chad ◽  
Project Area ◽  
Irrigation Project ◽  
Lake Chad Basin

Aims: A field study was carried out to evaluate the content and distribution of available sulfur in soils underlain by the Chad Formation under the South Chad Irrigation Project area, Borno State. Study Design: Purposive sampling technique was employed based on homogeneity in general surface features especially vegetation, topography and morphology. Place and Duration of Study: The study site includes the clay plains of the Lake Chad Basin where the South Chad Irrigation Project is located. The study was carried out in 2016. Methodology: Seven profile pits were sunk at selected locations across the study areas and samples collected in each pedogenic horizons of the profiles. Surface and sub-surface samples were also collected for physico-chemical analyses using standard procedures. The available sulfur was determined turbidimetrically after extracting with calcium phosphate solution. Results: Textural classes were generally clayey with islands of sandy loam. The soil reaction ranged from moderately acid to slightly alkaline. The percentage organic matter content was generally low, being higher in clay than sandy soil texture.  The available sulfur content was low with a range of 2.0 to 6.9 mg/kg. The distribution of available S content decreased with depth. The results also indicated that available P in profile P6 is positively correlated (r = 0.989**) with the available sulfur content. There was little or no correlation between the available sulfur and soil pH in all the profiles, except profile P1 (r = 0.531*). Significant negative correlation between organic matter content and the available sulfur in profiles P1 (r = -0.817**), P5 (r = -0.527*) and P7 (r = -0.989**) were observed. Significant negative correlation (r = -0.562*) was also observed between available sulfur and clay content in profile P1. The significant negative correlation of available sulfur with clay and organic matter could be due to adsorptive properties of clay and organic matter fractions. Conclusion: The soils were observed to be deficient in available sulfur. The low available sulfur status of the soils indicated that supplemental application of sulfur containing fertilizer and manure would be required for maximum cereals and vegetable crop production in the study area. 

scholarly journals Stable carbon isotope fractionation during methanogenesis in three boreal peatland ecosystems

2010 ◽  
Vol 7 (4) ◽  
pp. 5497-5515 ◽  
Author(s):  
P. E. Galand ◽  
K. Yrjälä ◽  
R. Conrad
Keyword(s):  
Organic Matter ◽  
Isotope Fractionation ◽  
Stable Carbon Isotope ◽  
Co2 Production ◽  
Stable Carbon ◽  
Production Rates ◽  
Hydrogenotrophic Methanogenesis ◽  
Major Process ◽  
Acetoclastic Methanogenesis ◽  
Stable Carbon Isotope Fractionation

Abstract. The degradation of organic matter to CH4 and CO2 was investigated in three different boreal peatland systems in Finland, a mesotrophic fen (MES), an oligotrophic fen (OLI), and an ombrotrophic peat (OMB). MES had similar production rates of CO2 and CH4, but the two nutrient-poor peatlands (OLI and OMB) produced in general more CO2 than CH4. δ13C analysis of CH4 and CO2 in the presence and absence methyl fluoride (CH3F), an inhibitor of acetoclastic methanogenesis, showed that CH4 was predominantly produced by hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis and that acetoclastic methanogenesis only played an important role in MES. These results, together with our observations concerning the collective inhibition of CH4 and CO2 production rates by CH3F, indicate that organic matter was degraded through different paths in the mesotrophic and the nutrient-poor peatlands. In the mesotrophic fen, the major process is canonical fermentation followed by acetoclastic and hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis, while in the nutrient-poor peat, organic matter was apparently degraded to a large extent by a different path which finally involved hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis. Our data suggest that degradation of organic substances in the oligotrophic environments was incomplete and involved the use of organic compounds as oxidants.

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