Gamma-Ray Vulcanization of Rubber

1957 ◽  
Vol 30 (2) ◽  
pp. 380-392
Author(s):  
S. D. Gehman ◽  
I. Auerbach
Keyword(s):  
Physical Properties ◽  
Industrial Development ◽  
Industrial Revolution ◽  
Gamma Ray ◽  
Average Molecular Weight ◽  
Industrial Process ◽  
The United States ◽  
Chemical Research ◽  
Research Activity ◽  
Weight Variation

Abstract Vulcanization is the industrial process which transforms rubber from a soft, sticky, readily molded plastic to the highly elastic material familiar to everyone from innumerable uses. It was discovered by Charles Goodyear in 1839 and was one of the series of crucial inventions which started the United States on its industrial revolution in the nineteenth century. The automotive direction of this industrial development has accentuated the importance of rubber in succeeding years. This year the worldwide product volume to which vulcanization will be applied will exceed two and a half million tons. It is readily understood that vulcanization is now a highly developed process, the resultant of many improvements and developments over the course of a century of competitive use. Goodyear's original conception involved simply the heating of rubber with sulfur. The recognition of the chemical nature of the process was followed by the discovery of materials which, when added to the system, accelerated the reaction tremendously, allowed it to be carried out at lower temperatures, and improved profoundly the physical properties, uniformity, and aging resistance of the rubber. Such chemical vulcanizing systems are now applied in great variety. Many ways are known for vulcanizing rubber without using any sulfur, but they are of relatively minor commerical importance. Some of the synthetic rubbers require rather unique systems for vulcanization. There is continuous, intensive chemical research activity to find still better ways of vulcanizing rubber. So with gamma-ray vulcanization, it will be necessary to show some very tangible advantages to find even a few specialized applications. The idea of vulcanizing rubber by exposure to energetic radiation is not new. A patent issued to E. B. Newton in 1933 claimed the vulcanization of rubber by short exposures to 250-kV cathode rays. Effects of pile irradiation on uncured elastomers were studied by Davidson and Geib. Numerous investigations of the effects of radiation on the physical properties of plastics are listed in the bibliography prepared by Sun. Gehman and Hobbs observed the vulcanization of rubber by intense gamma radiation. Jackson and Hale measured the physical properties of rubber-filler mixtures as a function of the radiation dose from a strong Co60 source for a variety of elastomers. Cross-linking of rubber by pile irradiation was studied in a quantitative way by Charlesby. He emphasized the usefulness of radiation crosslinking as a means for studying the average molecular weight, variation of the gel fraction, and the changes in properties of rubber as the degree of crosslinking is varied.

Assessing the Obstacles to Industrialisation: The Mexican Economy, 1830–1940

1992 ◽  
Vol 24 (1) ◽  
pp. 1-32 ◽  
Author(s):  
Stephen H. Haber
Keyword(s):  
Latin America ◽  
Latin American ◽  
Industrial Development ◽  
Western Europe ◽  
Industrial Revolution ◽  
Labour Productivity ◽  
The United States ◽  
Industrial Growth ◽  
Capital Costs ◽  
The North

After England began what came to be known as the First Industrial Revolution at the end of the eighteenth century, industrial technology quickly diffused throughout the nations of the North Atlantic. Within fifty years of the first rumblings of British industrialisation, the factory system had spread to Western Europe and the United States. Latin America, however, lagged behind. It was not until the twentieth century that manufacturing came to lead the economies of Latin America and that agrarian societies were transformed into industrial societies.This article seeks to understand this long lag in Latin American industrialisation through an analysis of the experience of Mexico during the period 1830–1940. The purpose of the paper is to look at the obstacles that prevented self-sustaining industrialisation from taking place in Mexico, as well as to assess the results of the industrialisation that did occur.The basic argument advanced is that two different types of constraints prevailed during different periods of Mexico's industrialisation. During the period from 1830 to 1880 the obstacles to industrialisation were largely external to firms: insecure property rights, low per capita income growth resulting from pre-capitalist agricultural organisation, and the lack of a national market (caused by inefficient transport, banditry and internal tariffs) all served as a brake on Mexico's industrial development. During the period 1880–1910 the obstacles to industrialisation were largely internal to firms. These factors included the inability to realise scale economies, high fixed capital costs and low labour productivity. During the period from 1910 to 1930 these internal constraints combined with new external constraints – including the Revolution of 1910–17, the political uncertainty of the post-revolutionary period and the onset of the Great Depression – which further slowed the rate of industrial growth.

scholarly journals The Industry and Public Finance of the USA and Europe in the XXI Century — the Decline Anatomy

2019 ◽  
Vol 12 (1) ◽  
pp. 110-119
Author(s):  
A. Yu. Chernov
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Global Economy ◽  
Industrial Development ◽  
Industrial Revolution ◽  
Free Market ◽  
Adam Smith ◽  
The United States ◽  
Market Model ◽  
Critical Examination ◽  
The Usa

The subject of the researchis the dynamics of industrial development in the USA and Europe over the past 15 years.The purpose of the paperwas critical examination of the widely accepted practice of studying the economy in terms of cost indicators. The paper analyzes primarily natural indicators that point to a deep industrial crisis in the United States and European countries who are losing their leadership in such innovative areas as electronics, semiconductor devices, robotics, renewable energy for reasons of a long-term gap in innovation and the chosen economic model. Until the beginning of the XX century, the USA and Europe developed on the principles of a free market economy formulated by Adam Smith that led to the industrial revolution in England while the USA went a century-long way to turn from an agrarian country into an industrial world leader. Other countries followed suit with varying degrees of success. After the global crisis of 1929 and the expansion of state participation in the economy, Marx–Keynes’s model, replaced Adam Smith’s market model. But since the 1970s, growth rates have declined sharply provoking deindustrialization; production facilities have been moving to third world countries; budget deficits and public debt have been increasing along with the accelerating unemployment, inflation and the influx of migrants. Any attempts to reduce social expenditures trigger powerful protests of the population and the loss of votes. The United States and Europe have fallen into a social trap from which so far no one sees a way out. As a result,it is concludedthat in 15 years, assuming the current trends continue, the United States and Europe will turn into ordinary regions of the global economy.The relevance of this study, compared with other publications on this subject, stems from the fact that the true situation in the country’s economy is determined according to the valuation of the country’s industrial output rather than based on the analysis of the GDP per capita.

Where Our Energy Comes From

2014 ◽  
Author(s):  
Michael H. Fox
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Eighteenth Century ◽  
Industrial Development ◽  
Industrial Revolution ◽  
Eleventh Century ◽  
The United States ◽  
Ice Age ◽  
Elizabeth I ◽  
Human Populations ◽  
James Watt

Energy and human history go hand in hand. For most of the time that humans have been on earth, energy was used at a very low level, mostly by burning wood for cooking and warmth. This is still the case for large areas of the planet, especially in much of Africa and parts of Asia and South America. As human populations grew, forests were decimated to obtain fuel, resulting in the collapse of several societies (1). Coal was discovered in England in the thirteenth century and began to be used extensively beginning in the 1500s. Between 1570 and 1603, during the reign of Elizabeth I, coal became the main source of fuel for England (2). This was, not coincidentally, also during the time of the Little Ice Age, when there was a great need for fuel to keep warm. Coal transformed England, for better and for worse. The development of the coal-based steam engine by Thomas Newcomen in 1712, with further critical developments by James Watt and Matthew Boulton, led to the Industrial Revolution beginning in about 1780. Coal built England into the world’s most powerful country during the nineteenth century. At the same time, it brought about unbelievable pollution, which drastically shortened lives, and it led to child slave labor in factories and mines. Coal had been discovered even earlier in China and was being used for iron production in the eleventh century (2). Coal was discovered in Appalachia in the United States in the mid-eighteenth century and quickly became its most abundant source of energy. This led to the industrial development of the United States, the building of canals to transport coal, and the construction of railroads to connect the far reaches of the country. Wherever large sources of coal were found, societies were transformed. Coal was fine for running steam engines and cooking or keeping warm, but what people wanted desperately was a better source of light for their homes and businesses.

Christian Colonialism and Capitalism

2021 ◽  
pp. 189-208
Author(s):  
Kathleen Wellman
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Industrial Development ◽  
Industrial Revolution ◽  
The United States ◽  
Victorian England ◽  
European Continent ◽  
Patriarchal Family ◽  
The World ◽  
Religious Revivals

The nineteenth century tells the story of Christian success in England and America. Victorian England set a model of patriarchal family virtue rooted in “biblical Christianity.” God rewarded it with industrial development and capitalist expansion in its colonial ventures. The Industrial Revolution advances these curricula’s crucial economic argument: economic success reveals God’s favor. England’s virtues also allowed it to avoid the political tumult that beset the European continent. England and the United States enjoyed religious revivals, and missionaries spread Christianity throughout the world. Colonialism opened the world to missionary evangelization in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. The capitalist success of the United States reveals it as the beneficiary of Divine Providence. Nineteenth-century evangelicals not only asserted these claims but also saw Christian hegemony as a realistic aspiration.

Terrestrial radioactivity and gamma-ray exposure in the United States and Canada

2005 ◽  
Author(s):  
Joseph S. Duval ◽  
John M. Carson ◽  
Peter B. Holman ◽  
Arthur G. Darnley
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Gamma Ray ◽  
The United States

THE ROLE OF THE CIVIL SERVICE IN THE INDUSTRIALIZATION OF NIGERIA

2018 ◽  
Vol 1 (2) ◽  
Author(s):  
Chiemeka Onyema
Keyword(s):  
Public Service ◽  
Industrial Development ◽  
Industrial Revolution ◽  
National Development ◽  
Public Servants ◽  
Business Policy ◽  
Technological Base ◽  
Development Plans ◽  
Ease Of Doing Business ◽  
The Right

The goal of berthing Nigeria’s full-scale industrial revolution is yet to be achieved. All the industrial development plans have so far failed to accelerate the nation’s industrialization, hence the country’s low industrial base which has kept her in the league of developing nations. In fact, Nigeria has in recent times been experiencing deindustrialization, as several industries have collapsed and some others, such as Unilever and Michelin, have relocated to other countries. Several factors are responsible for Nigeria’s low industrial development and they include: inadequate infrastructure (particularly, energy), poor technological base, multiple taxes and levies, and, the shortage and high cost of foreign exchange. Despite a growing body of literature on industrialization in Nigeria, not much has been written about the link between Public Service Reforms and industrialization in Nigeria. This paper examines the links between the implementation of the Service Compact (SERVICOM) Charter and the achievement of Nigeria’s industrial development policies, especially the ‘Ease of Doing Business’ Policy. The paper makes the case that the goal of industrializing Nigeria will not be fully realised without an efficient Public Service. Furthermore, the paper highlights the need for Nigerian public servants to have the right work attitude, and to be morally upright and patriotic, in order to create a business-friendly environment and to build investor confidence, so as to facilitate and accelerate the country’s industrialization and overall national development. The author recommends that the Nigerian government should strengthen the implementation of the Servicom Charter and also incorporate the Charter into the industrialization plan.

Hutton Rises in the World

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Susan E. Whyman
Keyword(s):  
Industrial Development ◽  
Government Regulation ◽  
Industrial Revolution ◽  
Religious Faith ◽  
Religious Practice ◽  
Business Success ◽  
Business Skills ◽  
Economic Framework ◽  
Future Value

Hutton’s business success and social mobility are viewed in the context of Birmingham’s industrial development, a booming land market, the lack of government regulation, and the diversity of religious practice. This chapter reveals the economic framework that allowed Hutton to amass wealth. Once he settled in Birmingham, he found new ways to develop business skills and make money. Early failure stiffened his resolve, taught him lessons, and led him to focus on selling paper, instead of books. Convinced of the future value of land, he made risky speculations and accumulated large debts. A case study compares Hutton’s response to the Industrial Revolution with that of his sister, Catherine Perkins. Hutton devoted all his energies to making money and buying estates. His sister found greater happiness in her religious faith and charity. Their opposing views about land, trade, money, and religion reveal a spectrum of personal responses to rapid economic change.

Disability and Work During the Industrial Revolution in Britain

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Daniel Blackie
Keyword(s):  
Disability Studies ◽  
Industrial Development ◽  
Industrial Revolution ◽  
Coal Industry ◽  
Historical Research ◽  
Disabled People ◽  
Industrial Sites ◽  
The Past ◽  
Paid Employment

A common claim in disability studies is that industrialization has marginalized disabled people by limiting their access to paid employment. This claim is empirically weak and rests on simplified accounts of industrialization. Use of the British coal industry during the period 1780–1880 as a case study shows that reassessment of the effect of the Industrial Revolution is in order. The Industrial Revolution was not as detrimental to the lives of disabled people as has often been assumed. While utopian workplaces for disabled people hardly existed, industrial sites of work did accommodate quite a large number of workers with impairments. More attention therefore needs to be paid to neglected or marginalized features of industrial development in the theorization of disability. Drawing on historical research on disability in the industrial workplace will help scholars better understand the significance of industrialization to the lives of disabled people, both in the past and the present.

scholarly journals A Review on Additive Manufacturing of Pure Copper

Coatings ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (6) ◽  
pp. 740
Author(s):  
Qi Jiang ◽  
Peilei Zhang ◽  
Zhishui Yu ◽  
Haichuan Shi ◽  
Di Wu ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Additive Manufacturing ◽  
Physical Properties ◽  
Industrial Development ◽  
Pure Copper ◽  
Development Trend ◽  
High Heat ◽  
Current Status ◽  
Selective Electron Beam Melting ◽  
Traditional Processing ◽  
Electrical Components

With the development of the aerospace and automotive industries, high heat exchange efficiency is a challenge facing the development of various industries. Pure copper has excellent mechanical and physical properties, especially high thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity. These excellent properties make pure copper the material of choice for the manufacture of heat exchangers and other electrical components. However, the traditional processing method is difficult to achieve the production of pure copper complex parts, so the production of pure copper parts through additive manufacturing has become a problem that must be overcome in industrial development. In this article, we not only reviewed the current status of research on the structural design and preparation of complex pure copper parts by researchers using selective laser melting (SLM), selective electron beam melting (SEBM) and binder jetting (BJ) in recent years, but also reviewed the forming, physical properties and mechanical aspects of pure copper parts prepared by different additive manufacturing methods. Finally, the development trend of additive manufacturing of pure copper parts is also prospected.

Sign in / Sign up

Export Citation Format

Share Document