Characterization of 3-Dimensional Printing and Casting Materials for use in Computed Tomography and X-ray Imaging Phantoms

Imaging phantoms are used to calibrate and validate the performance of medical computed tomography (CT) systems. Many new materials developed for three-dimensional (3D) printing processes may be useful in the direct printing or casting of biomimetic and geometrically accurate CT and X-ray phantoms. The X-ray linear attenuation coefficients of polymer samples were measured to discover materials for use as tissue mimics in phantoms. This study included a cohort of polymer compounds that were tested in cured form. The cohort consisted of 101 standardized polymer samples fabricated from: two-part silicones and polyurethanes used in commercial casting processes; one-part optically cured polyurethanes used in 3D printing; and fused deposition thermoplastics used in 3D printing. The testing was performed with a commercial micro-CT imaging system from 40 kVp to 140 kVp. The X-ray linear coefficients of the samples and human tissues were plotted with error bars to allow the reader to identify suitable mimics. The X-ray linear attenuation coefficients of the tested material samples spanned a wide range of values, with a small number of them overlapping established human tissue mimic values. Twenty 3D printer materials and one castable polyurethane tracked nylon and polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) as established X-ray mimics for fat. Five 3D printer materials tracked water as an established X-ray mimic for muscle.

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A Printable Device for Measuring Clarity and Colour in Lake and Nearshore Waters

Sensors ◽

10.3390/s19040936 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 19 (4) ◽

pp. 936 ◽

Cited By ~ 7

Author(s):

Robert Brewin ◽

Thomas Brewin ◽

Joseph Phillips ◽

Sophie Rose ◽

Anas Abdulaziz ◽

...

Keyword(s):

3D Printing ◽

Citizen Science ◽

Scientific Discovery ◽

Low Cost ◽

Secchi Depth ◽

Three Dimensional ◽

Water Clarity ◽

3D Printer ◽

Satellite Validation ◽

Wide Range

Two expanding areas of science and technology are citizen science and three-dimensional (3D) printing. Citizen science has a proven capability to generate reliable data and contribute to unexpected scientific discovery. It can put science into the hands of the citizens, increasing understanding, promoting environmental stewardship, and leading to the production of large databases for use in environmental monitoring. 3D printing has the potential to create cheap, bespoke scientific instruments that have formerly required dedicated facilities to assemble. It can put instrument manufacturing into the hands of any citizen who has access to a 3D printer. In this paper, we present a simple hand-held device designed to measure the Secchi depth and water colour (Forel Ule scale) of lake, estuarine and nearshore regions. The device is manufactured with marine resistant materials (mostly biodegradable) using a 3D printer and basic workshop tools. It is inexpensive to manufacture, lightweight, easy to use, and accessible to a wide range of users. It builds on a long tradition in optical limnology and oceanography, but is modified for ease of operation in smaller water bodies, and from small watercraft and platforms. We provide detailed instructions on how to build the device and highlight examples of its use for scientific education, citizen science, satellite validation of ocean colour data, and low-cost monitoring of water clarity, colour and temperature.

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Three-dimensional Printing Versus Conventional Machining in the Creation of a Meatal Urethral Dilator: a Cost and Mechanical Strength Analysis

10.21203/rs.3.rs-28817/v1 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Michael Yue-Cheng Chen ◽

Jacob Skewes ◽

Ryan Daley ◽

Maria Ann Woodruff ◽

Nicholas John Rukin

Keyword(s):

3D Printing ◽

Three Dimensional ◽

Patient Specific ◽

Strength Analysis ◽

Fused Deposition Modelling ◽

3D Printer ◽

Current Time ◽

Fused Deposition ◽

3D Printed ◽

Conventional Machining

Abstract BackgroundThree-dimensional (3D) printing is a promising technology but the limitations are often poorly understood. We compare different 3D printingmethods with conventional machining techniques in manufacturing meatal urethral dilators which were recently removed from the Australian market. MethodsA prototype dilator was 3D printed vertically orientated on a low cost fused deposition modelling (FDM) 3D printer in polylactic acid (PLA) and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS). It was also 3D printed horizontally orientated in ABS on a high-end FDM 3D printer with soluble support material, as well as on a SLS 3D printer in medical nylon. The dilator was also machined in stainless steel using a lathe. All dilators were tested mechanically in a custom rig by hanging calibrated weights from the handle until the dilator snapped. ResultsThe horizontally printed ABS dilator experienced failure at a greater load than the vertically printed PLA and ABS dilators respectively (503g vs 283g vs 163g, p < 0.001). The SLS nylon dilator and machined steel dilator did not fail. The steel dilator is most expensive with a quantity of five at 98 USD each, but this decreases to 30 USD each for a quantity of 1000. In contrast, the cost for the SLS dilator is 33 USD each for five and 27 USD each for 1000. ConclusionsAt the current time 3D printing is not a replacement for conventional manufacturing. 3D printing is best used for patient-specific parts, prototyping or manufacturing complex parts that have additional functionality that cannot otherwise beachieved.

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Modern Applications of 3D Printing: The Case of an Artificial Ear Splint Model

Methods and Protocols ◽

10.3390/mps4030054 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 4 (3) ◽

pp. 54

Author(s):

Athanasios Argyropoulos ◽

Pantelis N. Botsaris

Keyword(s):

3D Printing ◽

Three Dimensional ◽

Shape Preservation ◽

Patient Specific ◽

Fused Deposition Modelling ◽

Comprehensive Overview ◽

Protruding Ears ◽

Fused Deposition ◽

Custom Made ◽

Wide Range

Three-dimensional (3D) printing is a leading manufacturing technique in the medical field. The constantly improving quality of 3D printers has revolutionized the approach to new challenges in medicine for a wide range of applications including otoplasty, medical devices, and tissue engineering. The aim of this study is to provide a comprehensive overview of an artificial ear splint model applied to the human auricle for the treatment of stick-out protruding ears. The deformity of stick-out protruding ears remains a significant challenge, where the complex and distinctive shape preservation are key factors. To address this challenge, we have developed a protocol that involves photogrammetry techniques, reverse engineering technologies, a smart prototype design, and 3D printing processes. Specifically, we fabricated a 3D printed ear splint model via fused deposition modelling (FDM) technology by testing two materials, a thermoplastic polyester elastomer material (Z-Flex) and polycaprolactone (PCL 100). Our strategy affords a custom-made and patient-specific artificial ear aligner with mechanical properties that ensures sufficient preservation of the auricular shape by applying a force on the helix and antihelix and enables the ears to pin back to the head.

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Use of Three-Dimensional Printing in Modelling an Anatomical Structure with a High Computed Tomography Attenuation Value: A Feasibility Study

Journal of Medical Imaging and Health Informatics ◽

10.1166/jmihi.2021.3664 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 11 (8) ◽

pp. 2085-2090

Author(s):

Lakna N. Kariyawasam ◽

K. C. Ng Curtise ◽

Zhonghua Sun ◽

Catherine S. Kealley

Keyword(s):

Computed Tomography ◽

3D Printing ◽

Cortical Bone ◽

Three Dimensional ◽

3D Printer ◽

Material Extrusion ◽

Radiological Features ◽

Attenuation Value ◽

Ct Attenuation ◽

Ct Attenuation Value

Introduction: Three-dimensional (3D) printing provides an opportunity to develop anthropomorphic computed tomography (CT) phantoms with anatomical and radiological features mimicking a range of patients’ conditions, thus allowing development of individualised, low dose scanning protocols. However, previous studies of 3D printing in CT phantom development could only create anatomical structures using potassium iodide with attenuation values up to 1200 HU which is insufficient to mimic the radiological features of some high attenuation structures such as cortical bone. This study aimed at investigating the feasibility of using 3D printing in modelling cortical bone with a non-iodinated material. Methods: This study had 2 stages. Stage 1 involved a vat photopolymeri-sation 3D printer to directly print cube phantoms with different percentage compositions of calcium phosphate (CP) and resin (approach 1), and approach 2 using a material extrusion 3D printer to develop a cube mould for infilling of the CP with hardener as the phantom. The approach able to create the cube phantom with the CT attenuation value close to that of a tibial mid-diaphysis cortex of a real patient, 1475±205 HU was employed to develop a tibial mid-diaphysis phantom. The mean CT numbers of the cube and tibia phantoms were measured and compared with that of the original CT dataset through unpaired f-test. Results: All phantoms were scanned by CT using a lower extremity scanning protocol. The moulding approach was selected to develop the tibia mid-diaphysis phantom with CT attenuation value, 1434±184 HU which was not statistically significantly different from the one of the original dataset (p = 0.721). Conclusion: This study demonstrates the feasibility to use the material extrusion 3D printer to create a tibial mid-diaphysis mould for infilling of the CP as an anthropomorphic CT phantom and the attenuation value of its cortex matches the real patient’s one.

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Design and Development of Plastic Filament Extruder for 3D Printing

IRA-International Journal of Technology & Engineering (ISSN 2455-4480) ◽

10.21013/jte.v10.n3.p1 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 10 (3) ◽

pp. 23 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Mamta H. Wankhade ◽

Satish G. Bahaley

Keyword(s):

Additive Manufacturing ◽

3D Printing ◽

Three Dimensional ◽

3D Printer ◽

3D Objects ◽

Fused Deposition ◽

Additive Manufacturing Technology ◽

Mechanized Method ◽

Dimensional Object ◽

The Cost

<p>3D printing is a form of additive manufacturing technology where a three dimensional object is created by laying down successive layers of material. It is mechanized method whereby 3D objects are quickly made on a reasonably sized machine connected to a computer containing blueprints for the object. As 3D printing is growing fast and giving a boost to product development, the factories doing 3D printing need to continuously meet the printing requirements and maintain an adequate amount of inventory of the filament. As the manufactures have to buy these filaments from various vendors, the cost of 3D printing increases. To overcome the problem faced by the manufacturers, small workshop owners, the need of 3D filament making machine arises. This project focuses on designing and fabricating a portable fused deposition 3D printer filament making machine with cheap and easily available components to draw 1.75 mm diameter ABS filament.</p>

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Classification of X-Ray Attenuation Properties of Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing Materials Using Computed Tomography From 70 to 140 kVp

Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology ◽

10.3389/fbioe.2021.763960 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 9 ◽

Author(s):

Xiangjie Ma ◽

Martin Buschmann ◽

Ewald Unger ◽

Peter Homolka

Keyword(s):

Adipose Tissue ◽

Additive Manufacturing ◽

3D Printing ◽

Energy Dependence ◽

Fused Deposition Modeling ◽

Soft Tissues ◽

Diagnostic Image Quality ◽

X Ray ◽

Fused Deposition ◽

Wide Range

Additive manufacturing and 3D printing is particularly useful in the production of phantoms for medical imaging applications including determination and optimization of (diagnostic) image quality and dosimetry. Additive manufacturing allows the leap from simple slab and stylized to (pseudo)-anthropomorphic phantoms. This necessitates the use of materials with x-ray attenuation as close as possible to that of the tissues or organs mimicked. X-ray attenuation properties including their energy dependence were determined for 35 printing materials comprising photocured resins and thermoplastic polymers. Prior to measuring x-ray attenuation in CT from 70 to 140 kVp, printing parameters were thoroughly optimized to ensure maximum density avoiding too low attenuation due to microscopic or macroscopic voids. These optimized parameters are made available. CT scanning was performed in a water filled phantom to guarantee defined scan conditions and accurate HU value determination. The spectrum of HU values covered by polymers printed using fused deposition modeling reached from −258 to +1,063 at 120 kVp (−197 to +1,804 at 70 kVp, to −266 to +985 at 140 kVp, respectively). Photocured resins covered 43 to 175 HU at 120 kVp (16–156 at 70, and 57–178 at 140 kVp). At 120 kVp, ASA mimics water almost perfectly (+2 HU). HIPS (−40 HU) is found close to adipose tissue. In all photocurable resins, and 17 printing filaments HU values decreased with increasing beam hardness contrary to soft tissues except adipose tissue making it difficult to mimic water or average soft tissue in phantoms correctly over a range of energies with one single printing material. Filled filaments provided both, the HU range, and an appropriate energy dependence mimicking bone tissues. A filled material with almost constant HU values was identified potentially allowing mimicking soft tissues by reducing density using controlled under-filling. The measurements performed in this study can be used to design phantoms with a wide range of x-ray contrasts, and energy dependence of these contrasts by combining appropriate materials. Data provided on the energy dependence can also be used to correct contrast or contrast to noise ratios from phantom measurements to real tissue contrasts or CNRs.

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Three-dimensional printing versus conventional machining in the creation of a meatal urethral dilator: a cost and mechanical strength analysis

10.21203/rs.2.21033/v1 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Michael Yue-Cheng Chen ◽

Jacob Skewes ◽

Ryan Daley ◽

Maria Ann Woodruff ◽

Nicholas John Rukin

Keyword(s):

3D Printing ◽

Low Cost ◽

Three Dimensional ◽

Patient Specific ◽

Strength Analysis ◽

3D Printer ◽

Fused Deposition ◽

3D Printed ◽

The Cost ◽

Conventional Machining

Abstract Background Three-dimensional (3D) printing is a promising technology in medicine. Low-cost 3D printing options are accessible but the limitations are often poorly understood. We aim to compare fused deposition modelling (FDM), the most common and low cost 3D printing technique, with selective laser sintering (SLS) and conventional machining techniques in manufacturing meatal urethral dilators which were recently removed from the Australian market.Methods A meatal urethral dilator was designed using computer-aided design (CAD). The dilator was 3D printed vertically orientated on a low cost FDM 3D printer in polylactic acid (PLA) and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS). It was also 3D printed horizontally orientated in ABS on a high-end FDM 3D printer with soluble support material, as well as on a SLS 3D printer in medical nylon. The dilator was also machined in medical stainless steel using a lathe. All dilators were tested mechanically in a custom rig by hanging calibrated weights from the handle until the dilator snapped.Results The horizontally printed ABS dilator experienced failure at a greater load than the vertically printed PLA and ABS dilators respectively (503g vs 283g vs 163g, p < 0.001). The SLS nylon dilator did not fail but began to bend and deformed at around 5,000g of pressure. The steel dilator did not bend even at 10,000g of pressure. The cost per dilator is highest for the steel dilator if assuming a low quantity of five at 98 USD, but this decreases to 30 USD for a quantity of 1000. In contrast, the cost for the SLS dilator is 33 USD for a quantity of five but relatively unchanged at 27 for a quantity of 1000.Conclusions SLS and conventional machining created clinically functional meatal dilators but low-cost FDM printing could not. We suggest that at the current time 3D printing is not a replacement for conventional manufacturing techniques which are still the most reliable way to produce large quantities of parts with a simple geometry such as the meatal dilator. 3D printing is best used for patient-specific parts, prototyping or manufacturing complex parts that have additional functionality that cannot be achieved with conventional machining methods.

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3D DESIGN AND PRINTING OF CUSTOM-FIT FINGER SPLINT

Biomedical Engineering Applications Basis and Communications ◽

10.4015/s1016237218500321 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 30 (05) ◽

pp. 1850032

Author(s):

R. Swetha Arulmozhi ◽

Mahima Vaidya ◽

M. G. Poojalakshmi ◽

D. Ashok Kumar ◽

K. Anuraag

Keyword(s):

Rheumatoid Arthritis ◽

3D Printing ◽

Fused Deposition Modeling ◽

Three Dimensional ◽

Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene ◽

Future Research ◽

3D Printer ◽

3D Design ◽

Fused Deposition ◽

Three Dimensional Modeling

Finger deformities are a major concern among the Indian population, where the increase of risk factors are higher for people suffering from Rheumatoid Arthritis. The deformities hinder the movements in the finger, affecting their day to day activities. Finger splint is a device which is used to support and correct this deformity in order to improve function. Three-dimensional modeling and 3D printing techniques are the standard measures used. The proposed methodology involves 3D modeling which was done using Solidworks 2013, along with standard measurements taken from the patients with deformities due to Rheumatoid Arthritis. The measurements were obtained using a vernier caliper. The 3D printing was done using Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) and the materials needed for the same are Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) and flex Polylactic Acid (PLA). The 3D printer used for the same is Flashforge Dreamer 3D printer. The volunteers were fitted with the custom finger splint. The finger splint is light-weight, easy to maintain and clean, with an inventive design based on the finger deformity. It is comfortable and helps support the patients during daily activities. It serves as an easy slip-on. Since it is well-ventilated, swelling of the finger does not occur. Future research will focus on the correction of the deformity, in addition to the biomechanical aspect of finger deformities.

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3D Printing Technology in Design of Pharmaceutical Products

Current Pharmaceutical Design ◽

10.2174/1381612825666190116104620 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 24 (42) ◽

pp. 5009-5018 ◽

Cited By ~ 4

Author(s):

Ameeduzzafar ◽

Nabil K. Alruwaili ◽

Md. Rizwanullah ◽

Syed Nasir Abbas Bukhari ◽

Mohd Amir ◽

...

Keyword(s):

3D Printing ◽

Personalized Medicine ◽

Control Technique ◽

3D Printer ◽

Printing Technology ◽

Regulatory Pathways ◽

3D Printing Technology ◽

Fused Deposition ◽

Wide Range ◽

Inkjet Printer

Background: Three-dimensional printing (3DP) is a novel technology for fabrication of personalized medicine. As of late, FDA affirmed 3D printed tranquilize item in August 2015, which is characteristic of another section of Pharmaceutical assembling. 3DP incorporates a wide range of assembling procedures, which are altogether founded on computer-aided design (CAD), and controlled deposition of materials (layer-by-layer) to make freestyle geometries. Conventionally, many pharmaceutical processes like compressed tablet have been used from many years for the development of tablet with established regulatory pathways. But this simple process is outdated in terms of process competence and manufacturing flexibility (design space). 3DP is a new technology for the creation of plan, proving to be superior for complex products, customized items and items made on-request. It creates new opportunities for improving efficacy, safety, and convenience of medicines. Method: There are many of the 3D printing technology used for the development of personalized medicine on demand for better treatment like 3D powder direct printing technology, fused-filament 3D printing, 3D extrusion printer, piezoelectric inkjet printer, fused deposition 3D printing, 3D printer, ink-jet printer, micro-drop inkjet 3DP, thermal inkjet printer, multi-nozzle 3D printer, stereolithographic 3D printer. Result: This review highlights features how item and process comprehension can encourage the improvement of a control technique for various 3D printing strategies. Conclusion: It is concluded that the 3D printing technology is a novel potential for manufacturing of personalized dose medicines, due to better patient compliance which can be prepared when needed.

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4D Mapping of the Fracture Evolution in a Printed Gypsum-Like Core by Using X-Ray CT Scanning

Advances in Civil Engineering ◽

10.1155/2021/8820828 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 2021 ◽

pp. 1-12

Author(s):

Huabo Liu ◽

Fanjing Meng ◽

Shaozhen Hua

Keyword(s):

Computed Tomography ◽

Fractal Dimension ◽

3D Printing ◽

Three Dimensional ◽

Ct Scanning ◽

X Ray ◽

Box Counting ◽

Volumetric Images ◽

X Ray Computed ◽

Ct System

The paper presents the use of micro-X-ray computed tomography (CT) system and associated automatic loading device in visualizing and analyzing the propagation of penny-shaped flaw in gypsum-like 3D printing specimen. During the loading process, a micro-X-ray computed tomography (CT) system was used to scan the specimen with a resolution of 30 × 30 μm2. The volumetric images of specimen were reconstructed based on two-dimensional images. Thus, the propagation of penny-shaped flaw in gypsum-like 3D printing specimen in spatial was observed. The device can record the evolution of the internal penny-shaped flaw by X-ray CT scanning and the evolution of the surface crack by digital radiography at the same time. Fractal analysis was employed to quantify the cracking process. Two- and three-dimensional box-counting methods were applied to analyze slice images and volumetric images, respectively. Comparison between fractal dimensions calculated from two- and three-dimensional box-counting method was carried out. The results show that the fractal dimension increases with the propagation of cracks. Moreover, the common approach to obtain the 3D fractal dimension of a self-similar fractal object by adding one to its corresponding 2D fractal dimension is found to be inappropriate.

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