Leader or Leaderess? Consequences of Using Feminatives for the Perception of Leadership

According to the Implicit Leadership Theory, leadership roles are assigned in the process of social construction and depend upon the level of congruence with the cognitive representation of a leader. Previous studies show that this cognitive representation is much more likely to involve a leader being a male rather than a female. The article presents the results of an experiment aimed at tentatively verifying whether the use of the feminine forms could increase the cognitive availability of the representation of a woman as a leader. In the experiment, 135 teams (N = 307 respondents) were randomly assigned to one of two experimental conditions: 1) generic instruction (without the use of feminatives, “Please, draw a leader”), 2) inclusive instruction (using feminatives, “Please, draw a leader/leaderess”). The results showed a significant interaction between the experimental manipulation and the proportion of women in the team. The use of feminine forms increased the percentage of females drawn as leaders only in teams with a high female-to-male ratio.

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The Gender Typicality of Faces and Its Impact on Visual Processing and on Hiring Decisions

Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) ◽

10.1027/1618-3169/a000217 ◽

2013 ◽

Vol 60 (6) ◽

pp. 444-452 ◽

Cited By ~ 8

Author(s):

Lisa von Stockhausen ◽

Sara Koeser ◽

Sabine Sczesny

Keyword(s):

Visual Processing ◽

Past Research ◽

Visual Exploration ◽

Facial Appearance ◽

Leadership Roles ◽

Hiring Decisions ◽

Leadership Selection ◽

Gender Typicality ◽

Second Stage ◽

The Feminine

Past research has shown that the gender typicality of applicants’ faces affects leadership selection irrespective of a candidate’s gender: A masculine facial appearance is congruent with masculine-typed leadership roles, thus masculine-looking applicants are hired more certainly than feminine-looking ones. In the present study, we extended this line of research by investigating hiring decisions for both masculine- and feminine-typed professional roles. Furthermore, we used eye tracking to examine the visual exploration of applicants’ portraits. Our results indicate that masculine-looking applicants were favored for the masculine-typed role (leader) and feminine-looking applicants for the feminine-typed role (team member). Eye movement patterns showed that information about gender category and facial appearance was integrated during first fixations of the portraits. Hiring decisions, however, were not based on this initial analysis, but occurred at a second stage, when the portrait was viewed in the context of considering the applicant for a specific job.

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STEREOTYPE THREAT AND STEREOTYPE LIFT: THE CASE OF 10 YEAR OLD GIRLS AND BOYS

Civitas et Lex ◽

10.31648/cetl.2339 ◽

2016 ◽

Vol 12 (4) ◽

pp. 21-32

Author(s):

Anna Kwiatkowska ◽

Małgorzata Mróz

Keyword(s):

Stereotype Threat ◽

Cognitive Performance ◽

Significant Interaction ◽

Self Esteem ◽

The Self ◽

Experimental Conditions ◽

Significant Interaction Effect ◽

Significant Drop ◽

Stereotype Lift ◽

And Performance

The aim of this study was to examine the effects of stereotypical and counter-stereotypicalinformation on the self-esteem and cognitive performance of 10-year-old children. Our sampleconsisted of 37 girls and 37 boys. Children were presented with 10 “mathematical” puzzles in threeexperimental conditions: stereotypical (boys are better), counter-stereotypical (girls are better), andthe control condition (no particular information). Self-esteem was measured using a non-verbaltask. The results showed a significant interaction effect of “condition x sex” on self-esteem andperformance. Girls revealed no significant differences between control and experimental conditions,while boys showed a significant drop in self-esteem and performance in the counter-stereotypicalcondition as compared to the control condition and a significant lift in self-esteem and performancein the stereotypical condition as compared to the control condition.

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Managerial assignments of credit and blame: a five-country study of leadership desirability

Cross Cultural & Strategic Management ◽

10.1108/ccsm-04-2017-0046 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 25 (4) ◽

pp. 741-762

Author(s):

C. Lakshman ◽

Kubilay Gok ◽

Linh Chi Vo

Keyword(s):

Leadership Theory ◽

Strong Impact ◽

Leadership Perceptions ◽

Implicit Leadership ◽

Implicit Leadership Theory ◽

Content Type ◽

Subordinate Performance ◽

Blame Attributions ◽

Literature Highlight ◽

Different Cultures

Purpose Although the international business literature has examined leader traits that are desirable in different cultures, it has not examined critical behaviors or managerial attributions of credit and blame. Credit and blame attributions have important consequences for the desirability of leadership across cultures. Arguing that these types of managerial attributions are likely to have a strong impact on what constitutes desirable leadership; the authors examine them in five countries, namely, USA, France, India, Turkey and Vietnam. The purpose of this paper is to contribute by examining the influence of credit and blame attributions on subordinate satisfaction and leadership perceptions (desirability), unaddressed in the literature. Design/methodology/approach The model was tested using questionnaire responses of subordinates in a variety of business organizations, from the five countries indicated, including manufacturing, telecommunication, financial and other services. Findings Using the implicit leadership theory, the authors contribute by demonstrating the importance of these attributions for leadership perceptions in five different cultures. The results are supportive of the hypotheses and suggest the important moderating role of subordinate performance for leadership perceptions. The authors discuss findings in the context of the literature, highlight contributions and identify limitations and future directions. Originality/value Using the implicit leadership theory, the authors contribute by demonstrating the importance of these attributions for leadership perceptions in five different cultures.

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Is the meaning of ethical leadership constant across cultures? A test of cross-cultural measurement invariance

International Journal of Manpower ◽

10.1108/ijm-02-2019-0079 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 41 (8) ◽

pp. 1323-1340 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Saima Ahmad ◽

Syed Fazal-e-hasan ◽

Ahmad Kaleem

Keyword(s):

Measurement Invariance ◽

Ethical Leadership ◽

Cross Cultural ◽

Implicit Leadership ◽

Implicit Leadership Theory ◽

Content Type ◽

Significant Difference ◽

Item Level ◽

Multiple Sample ◽

Different Cultures

PurposeThis paper empirically addresses the question of whether the meaning of ethical leadership is constant across cultures. Drawing on the implicit leadership theory (ILT), we examine whether people in Australia and Pakistan respond to perceived ethical leadership in a similar or different manner. By comparing employees' interpretation of the key attributes associated with ethical leadership, we advance construct-specific knowledge in cross-national contexts.Design/methodology/approachSince meaningful cross-country comparisons of a research construct require an equivalent measurement of it, we examine the issue of cross-cultural measurement invariance of ethical leadership. Specifically, this study explores the configural, metric and scalar invariance of ethical leadership by obtaining data from matched international samples.FindingsThe findings broadly support cross-cultural generalisability of the construct's meaning and cross-cultural transferability of the ethical leadership scale (ELS). They suggest that measures of ethical leadership constructs should be used in different cultures with caution because significant differences may exist at the item level.Originality/valueThis study provides cross-cultural endorsement to the construal of ethical leadership by presenting evidence that supports convergence in the construct's meaning across Eastern and Western cultures. The study has enhanced the construct validity of ethical leadership through the use of the refined multiple-sample analytical approach. Previous studies have assumed that measures of ethical leadership are invariant across various contexts. However, this is the first study to employ a robust methodological technique (metric and path invariance) that demonstrates the significant difference between each item and path and generalises the validity of ethical leadership construct and its measures by using international samples.

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Limitations of Procedures for Improving Group Problem Solving

Psychological Reports ◽

10.2466/pr0.1969.25.2.639 ◽

1969 ◽

Vol 25 (2) ◽

pp. 639-656 ◽

Cited By ~ 7

Author(s):

Norman R. F. Maier ◽

James A. Thurber

Keyword(s):

Problem Solving ◽

Experimental Manipulation ◽

Group Problem ◽

Experimental Conditions ◽

Group Problem Solving ◽

Limited Support ◽

Idea Evaluation

These experiments were designed to test whether the quality of group problem solving could be improved by instructing groups to follow certain procedures. 192 groups of 2 male and 1 female S each solved Maier's Sewing Room Case under 4 different experimental conditions: I—no instructions regarding processes or procedures to follow; II—instructions for carrying out idea-evaluation in two separate stages; III—instructions requesting diagnosis and factual support for each solution generated; and IV—instructions requiring locating obstacles before generating solutions. The results show limited support for the value of such instructions. These marginally significant results were due to a relatively small number of groups conforming to the experimental manipulation rather than to the inadequacy of the principles on which the manipulations were based. Some directed training in use of problem-solving principles, rather than a mere knowledge of them, seems to be essential in achieving high qualiry solutions. Idea-evaluation seems to suffer in group problem solving. Brainstorming, which stresses idea-getting, has its limitations because it leaves the evaluation to outside judges.

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Eliciting Negative Affects Using Film Clips and Real-Life Methods

Psychological Reports ◽

10.1177/0033294117730844 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 121 (3) ◽

pp. 527-547 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

João Carlos Centurion Cabral ◽

Patrice de Souza Tavares ◽

Gibson Juliano Weydmann ◽

Vera Torres das Neves ◽

Rosa Maria Martins de Almeida

Keyword(s):

Undergraduate Students ◽

Negative Emotions ◽

Real Life ◽

Experimental Manipulation ◽

Emotional Reactions ◽

Experimental Conditions ◽

Emotion Elicitation ◽

Negative Affects ◽

Film Clips ◽

Cortisol Responses

Although audio-visual stimuli are among the most frequently used methods to elicit emotional reactions in experimental conditions, real-life manipulations have increasingly been used in different countries. However, the applicability of such protocols has not yet been tested in Brazilian Portuguese speakers. Thus, we conducted two experiments to investigate the effectiveness of both methods. In the first experiment, we used film clips to induce negative emotions (i.e., anger, fear, or sadness) or an emotionally neutral condition in 321 undergraduate students. After watching one of the online videos, volunteers completed an emotional assessment. As expected, there were significant differences in all groups. Our results corroborate the relatively discrete patterns in emotion elicitation using films. In the second experiment, anger was elicited in 18 male undergraduates through a hostile social interaction with a confederate and measured by the corrugator muscle activity and cortisol responses. Indeed, there was an increase in corrugator activity in the group exposed to anger induction, even after a few minutes from the end of the experimental manipulation. Implications for experiments on the negative emotions are discussed.

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An experimental test of the effect of acute anxious arousal and anxiety sensitivity on negative reinforcement smoking

Journal of Psychopharmacology ◽

10.1177/0269881116642880 ◽

2016 ◽

Vol 30 (7) ◽

pp. 641-653 ◽

Cited By ~ 10

Author(s):

Samantha G Farris ◽

Michael J Zvolensky

Keyword(s):

Anxiety Sensitivity ◽

Significant Interaction ◽

Negative Reinforcement ◽

Smoking Behavior ◽

Experimental Manipulation ◽

Future Research ◽

Anxious Arousal ◽

Smoking Topography ◽

Biological Challenge ◽

Before And After

Introduction: Although anxiety sensitivity has been reliably associated with smoking-anxiety comorbidity, there has not been a test of whether this construct moderates the effect of acute anxious arousal on actual smoking behavior. The present study utilized an experimental design to test the moderating role of anxiety sensitivity on laboratory-induced anxious arousal in terms of smoking urges and topography (puff style). Method: Participants were adult daily smokers ( n=90; Mage=43.6 SD =9.7); average 15.8 cigarettes per day). A between-subjects design was used; participants were randomly assigned to complete a biological challenge procedure consisting of either a single vital capacity inhalation of 35% carbon dioxide (CO2)-enriched air mixture or compressed room air. Smoking urges and smoking topography (puff behavior) were assessed before and after the challenge. Results: Results revealed a significant interaction between anxiety sensitivity and experimental condition ( b=−9.96, p=0.014), such that high anxiety sensitive smokers exposed to 35% CO2-enriched air reported significantly lower levels of smoking urges, relative to low anxiety sensitive smokers; the conditional effect of anxiety sensitivity was not observed for the room air condition. There were no significant interaction effects of experimental manipulation by anxiety sensitivity for any of the smoking topography outcomes. Discussion: The present results suggest for smokers with higher levels of anxiety sensitivity, the acute experience of anxious arousal is related to decreased subjective smoking urges. These data invite future research to explore the reasons for dampened smoking urges, including cardiorespiratory symptom severity.

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Images of Leadership Development From the Inside Out

Advances in Developing Human Resources ◽

10.1177/1523422315587897 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 17 (3) ◽

pp. 321-336 ◽

Cited By ~ 4

Author(s):

Heather Cairns-Lee

Keyword(s):

Leadership Development ◽

Future Research ◽

Leadership Roles ◽

Implicit Leadership ◽

Implicit Leadership Theories ◽

Naturally Occurring ◽

Novel Approach ◽

Symbolic Reality ◽

Personalized Approach ◽

Context Specific

The Problem With the codification of leadership into frameworks, models, and theories that can be taught, leadership, an art that is essentially subjective, symbolic, and context-specific, is “translated into” an objective, pragmatic, and universal domain. Development can be elusive when approached from this universal perspective if external models distract leaders from exploring their own views and practices of leadership. The Solution This article explores the subjective and symbolic reality of those in leadership roles to discover what leaders can learn about their leadership and its development from awareness of their own mental models. These models are illuminated by an exploration of leaders’ naturally occurring metaphors and implicit leadership theories (ILTs) using clean language to acknowledge experience exactly as described while minimizing external influence or interpretation. The Stakeholders Leadership development practitioners can benefit from the innovative personalized approach to surfacing and exploring leaders’ own metaphors facilitated by clean language, offered in this article. Examples are given of the range of leadership metaphors surfaced with this method. Researchers can appreciate a novel approach to qualitative research interviewing and identify future research in surfacing ILTs through naturally occurring metaphor facilitated by clean language.

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