Pesticide Exposure Risks to Chiropteran Species and the Impacts on Emerging Zoonotic Diseases

Neonicotinoids have been in the spotlight in the pollinator community as they persist in the soil, have high water solubility, and have been associated with negative health implications on insect pollinators. The risk of new novel pesticides, including neonicotinoids, to bats are largely unknown. Bats have unique physiology as they are the only mammals capable of true and sustained flight, and have physiological adaptations including echolocation and torpor which under current protocols for acute and chronic toxicity studies in birds and terrestrial animals are not assessed. Due to these characteristics, some have argued that bats may serve as important bioindicators for ecosystem health and pesticide use. This chapter will focus on pesticides, and discuss the increased risk of exposure, morbidity, and mortality of bats species due to their unique physiology and natural life history. Special emphasis will be on potential increased risk of zoonotic disease transmission in bats exposed to emerging contaminants that suppress their immune system or cause increased biological stress.

Reframing conservation and development perspectives on bushmeat

The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has drawn renewed attention to bushmeat consumption in the Global South, with the risks and consequences of zoonotic disease transmission proving critical for global public health. Conservation and development practitioners have long targeted bushmeat trade and consumption, seeking to reduce hunting pressures on wildlife and natural ecosystems by introducing alternative proteins and livelihoods to rural communities. While the shortcomings of these interventions have frequently been attributed to failures to integrate local perspectives and needs in program design, in this study we ask how the unexamined values of conservation and development practitioners themselves may contribute to the further marginalization of rural communities. We consider three prevalent framings of the “bushmeat crisis”: the juxtaposition of global conservation priorities against local resource use, the developmental distinction between industrial food production and bushmeat hunting practices, and the problems that arise when bushmeat consumption shifts to urban centers from rural communities. By turning our attention to the ideologies that structure interventions for bushmeat consumption and trade, this paper questions the imagined neutrality of conservation and development interventions. We highlight how moral valuations are embedded in the prioritization of the “global” good of biodiversity conservation, to the exclusion of local relations with these same species and ecosystems. At the same time, cultural biases privilege a developmental pathway away from dietary dependence on bushmeat. Finally, we note the substantive differences between urban and rural bushmeat consumption practices, often occluded in blanket condemnations of the wildlife trade. At a moment when bushmeat trade and consumption are broadly identified as the source of a devastating pandemic, it is ever more critical to ensure that future interventions for public health and conservation alike are based on a more nuanced understanding of the multiple and diverse actors, practices, and worldviews involved.

Milk and Meat Consumption Patterns and the Potential Risk of Zoonotic Disease Transmission among Urban and Peri-urban Dairy Farmers in Ethiopia

Background: In the Ethiopian dairy farming system, prevalence of zoonotic diseases such as bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is high in the cattle population. This, combined with some risky milk and meat consumption habits, such as raw milk and uninspected raw meat consumption, poses a considerable risk of zoonotic disease transmission. A survey was conducted to investigate milk and meat consumption patterns, and the level of exposure to urban and peri-urban dairy-keeping households for risks of zoonotic disease transmission.Methods: Data on milk and meat consumption behaviours and other socioeconomic and demographic variables were collected from 480 urban and peri-urban dairy farms randomly surveyed in major towns in Ethiopia (Mekele, Hawassa, and Gondar towns, Addis Ababa city, as well as five Oromia towns around Addis Ababa). Determinants of raw milk consumption associated with a number of demographic and socio-economic factors were analysed using a generalized ordered logistic model.Results: The results indicated that about 20% the population consumed raw milk and their awareness about pasteurization and its benefits were low. Location, gender of the household head, previous bTB testing of cattle on the farm, knowledge of zoonotic risks associated with raw milk consumption, household size, and per-capita milk consumption were found to be important determinants of the frequency of raw milk consumption. About 60% of the respondents were exposed to the risk of zoonotic diseases through their habit of frequently consuming raw meat. This was depite that over 90% of the respondants were aware of possible zoonotic risks of raw meat consumption. The determinants of raw meat consumption behaviours were associated with location, gender and age of the household head, household size, meat type preference, per-capita meat consumption, knowledge about disease transmission risks, and training on zoonoses. Conclusion: Creating awareness about the risk factors for zoonotic transmission of diseases including bTB through training and media campaigns, improving meat hygiene through better abattoir services, and inducing behavioural change around meat sourcing, raw meat and raw milk consumption, are all crucial to the successful prevention and control of the spread of zoonotic diseases, including bTB.

205Zoonotic disease transmission risk in displaced populations

Background Repeated spillover events of zoonotic diseases from animals to humans, in combination with unprecedented levels of forced migration, present a major challenge to the global health security agenda. Infectious disease risk is affected by a range of ecological, political and socio-economic drivers. Methods This study uses a qualitative case study methodology to determine how displacement affects the risks of zoonotic disease transmission. Based on key informant interviews and observational studies in Jordan and Pakistan, the study analyses social-structural factors impacting zoonotic disease transmission. Results The study shows that displacement may influence zoonotic disease transmission through its impact on environmental, socio-economic and behavioural factors, influenced by historical, political and socio-economic processes. Sporadic outbreaks of zoonoses including cutaneous leishmaniasis, rabies and Tuberculosis are reported among displaced populations. Risk factors include a decline in health services, increased population density, changes in environment, and reduced quality and availability of shelter, water and nutrition, in turn determining vulnerability to vectors and pathogens. Conclusions Risk factors affecting zoonoses in displacement are complex and interlinked. While the presence of animals may increase the risk in densely populated areas lacking hygiene, livestock may be beneficial to the health status of displaced by improving nutrition. Responses need to be interdisciplinary, multilevel and contextualized. Key messages To mitigate the risk of zoonotic disease transmission during displacement, responses need to include pathogen and vector control, as well as reducing vulnerability to disease, including through access to health and veterinary services and humanitarian assistance.

Transmission of ‘Candidatus Anaplasma camelii’ to mice and rabbits by camel-specific keds, Hippobosca camelina

Anaplasmosis, caused by infection with bacteria of the genus Anaplasma, is an important veterinary and zoonotic disease. Transmission by ticks has been characterized but little is known about non-tick vectors of livestock anaplasmosis. This study investigated the presence of Anaplasma spp. in camels in northern Kenya and whether the hematophagous camel ked, Hippobosca camelina, acts as a vector. Camels (n = 976) and > 10,000 keds were sampled over a three-year study period and the presence of Anaplasma species was determined by PCR-based assays targeting the Anaplasmataceae 16S rRNA gene. Camels were infected by a single species of Anaplasma, ‘Candidatus Anaplasma camelii’, with infection rates ranging from 63–78% during the dry (September 2017), wet (June-July 2018), and late wet seasons (July-August 2019). 10–29% of camel keds harbored ‘Ca. Anaplasma camelii’ acquired from infected camels during blood feeding. We determined that Anaplasma-positive camel keds could transmit ‘Ca. Anaplasma camelii’ to mice and rabbits via blood-feeding. We show competence in pathogen transmission and subsequent infection in mice and rabbits by microscopic observation in blood smears and by PCR. Transmission of ‘Ca. Anaplasma camelii’ to mice (8–47%) and rabbits (25%) occurred readily after ked bites. Hence, we demonstrate, for the first time, the potential of H. camelina as a vector of anaplasmosis. This key finding provides the rationale for establishing ked control programmes for improvement of livestock and human health.

Better together – Relative retention time plus spectral matching improves automated glycan characterization using PGC-nLC-IT-ESI-MS/MS

Porous Graphitized Carbon nano-liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (PGC-nLC-MS/MS) is a glycomics technique with the unique capacity to differentiate isobaric glycans. The lack of suitable software tools integrating chromatography and MS-information delivered by PGC-nLC-MS/MS has been limiting fast and robust glycan identification and quantitation. We report a LC-system-independent strategy called GlycoRRT that combines relative retention time (RRT) and negative ion fragment spectra analyses for isobaric structure-specific glycomics of PGC-nLC-MS/MS data. The GlycoRRT toolset is fully customizable and easily adaptable enabling semi-automated high-throughput structural assignments. The current library contains over 200 entries and their individual meta-data (MS instrumentation, experimental conditions, retention times, fragmentation profiles and glycan structural diagnostic ion features) relevant for reliable data analyses. The GlycoRRT workflow was employed to map the N- and O-glycome in blood group matched human plasma and urine as well as decipher Immunoglobulin (IgG) glycosylation features from 13 different animal species. We have also developed visualization tools to enable a consistent, reliable and reproducible analysis of large sets of multidimensional PGC-nLC-MS/MS glycomics data. This comprehensive glycan resource provides the glycan map of human and animal species, will serve as a reference in dissecting the role of glycans in host pathogen interaction and zoonotic disease transmission.

Sero-diagnosis of tuberculosis in elephants in Maharashtra, India

Tuberculosis is a highly contagious zoonotic disease caused by Mycobacterium spp. A study was conducted to detect the presence of Mycobacterium in captive elephants. A total of 15 captive elephants were screened from various regions in Maharashtra. The blood and serum samples collected were subjected to rapid test kit, BacT/ALERT 3D system, Ziehl-Neelsen (ZN) staining and PCR. All the samples were found seronegative using rapid test kit and whole blood PCR. Whereas, all samples were signalled culture positive in BacT/ALERT 3D system which were further subjected to PCR, only one amplicon was produced of 176bp of RD4 gene (Mycobacterium bovis) and no acid-fast organism was detected upon ZN. Due to the atypical nature of this organism, diagnosis of this disease in elephants using various tests is complicated unlike the diagnostic tests that are validated in domestic animals. Therefore, many tests have sub-optimal sensitivity and specificity in elephants. As TB is a zoonotic disease, transmission can occur between human-livestock-elephants interface. Therefore, the zoos and state forest authority should inculcate a protocol of periodic TB screening for Mahouts and elephants in captivity along with protocol of elephant-visitor interaction, thus helping in conservation of this endangered species in India.

Slaughter Conditions and Slaughtering of Pregnant Cows in Southeast Nigeria: Implications to Meat Quality, Food Safety and Security

The increase in the slaughter of pregnant cows (SPCs) for meat (except as may be approved by veterinarians on health grounds to salvage the animal) is unethical. SPCs for meat is also counterproductive, detrimental to food security, and may enhance zoonotic disease transmission. In this context, therefore, this current study examined slaughter conditions and the slaughtering of pregnant cows, and the implications for meat quality, food safety, and food security in Southeast Nigeria. The direct observational method was employed to examine the slaughterhouse activities, from when the cattle arrived at the lairage to the post-slaughter stage. A pre-tested and validated closed-ended-questionnaire was used to elicit information on causes of the SPCs and the method of disposal of eviscerated foetuses. Pregnancy status of cows slaughtered was determined by palpation followed by visual examination of the eviscerated and longitudinal incised uteri. The study lasted for six months during which 851 cows out of 1931 slaughtered cattle were surveyed. Assessment/decision-making protocol of slaughterhouse conditions, welfare conditions of slaughter-cattle, reasons for sale or slaughter of pregnant cows, distribution of pregnant cows slaughtered, method of disposal of eviscerated foetuses, and estimated economic losses of SPCs were delineated. Of the 851 cows examined, 17.4% (148/851) were pregnant while 43.2% (64/148) of the total foetuses recovered were in their third trimester. Major reasons adduced for SPCs by proportion of involved respondents were: ignorance of the animals’ pregnancy status (69.7%, 83/119), high demand for beef (61.3%, 73/119), preference for large-sized cattle (47.9%, 57/119), economic hardship (52.1%, 62/119) and diseases conditions (42.9%. 51/119). The conduct of SPCs for meat would not be profitable. This is because within six months, an estimated loss of about 44,000 kg of beef, equivalent to ₦ 70.1 million or $186,400 would be associated with SPCs and the consequential foetal wastages. If losses were to be replicated nationwide across slaughterhouses, 4.3 tons of beef estimated at ₦ 8.6 billion or $23 million would be wasted. Improving slaughter conditions and the welfare of slaughter-cattle in Nigerian slaughterhouses through advocacy, training of slaughterhouse workers, and strict implementation of laws promoting humane slaughter practices is imperative. Preventing SPCs for meat and inhumane slaughter practices at the slaughterhouse would enhance the welfare needs of slaughter cattle, grow the national herd size, and improve meat safety as well as food security.

Implementing network approaches to understand the socioecology of human-wildlife interactions

Human population expansion into nonhuman animals’ habitats has increased interest in the behavioral ecology of human-wildlife interactions. To date, however, whether and how wild animals and their conspecifics form non-random associations in terms of when or where they interact with humans still remains unclear. Here we adopt a comparative approach to address this gap, using social network analysis (SNA). SNA, increasingly implemented to determine human impact on wildlife spatial and social ecology, can be a powerful tool to understand how animal socioecology influences the spatiotemporal distribution of human-wildlife interactions. For 10 groups of rhesus, long-tailed, and bonnet macaques (Macaca spp.) living in anthropogenically-impacted environments in Asia, we collected data on human-macaque interactions, animal demographics, and macaque-macaque agonistic and affiliative social interactions. We constructed ‘human-interaction networks’ based on associations between macaques that interacted with humans within the same time and spatial locations, and social networks based on macaque-macaque allogrooming behavior, affiliative behaviors of short duration (agonistic support, lip-smacking, silent bare-teeth displays, and non-sexual mounting), and proximity. Pre-network permutation tests revealed that, for all macaque groups, human-interaction networks showed non-random structures. GLMMs revealed that individuals’ connectedness within human-interaction networks were positively associated their connectedness within affiliation social networks, and social proximity networks although this effect varied across species (bonnets > rhesus > long-tailed). Male macaques were more well-connected in human-interaction networks than females. Neither macaques’ connectedness within grooming social networks nor their dominance ranks had an impact on human-interaction networks. Our findings suggest that, in challenging, time-constraining anthropogenic environments, less time-consuming affiliative behaviors and additionally greater social tolerance (especially in less ecologically flexible species with a shorter history of exposure to human activity) may be key to animals’ maintaining strong social connections. Subsets of these animals may also utilize greater exploratory tendencies and life-histories that are less energetically demanding in the long-term. Both of these strategies may contribute to animals’ propensities to engage in joint risk-taking by being near and engaging with humans. From conservation and public health perspectives, human-interaction networks may inform interventions to mitigate zoonotic disease transmission and move human-wildlife interactions from conflict towards co-existence.