Introduction

This section introduces the topic by explaining the role that structure plays in protecting liberty and property rights. As illustrations, it explains how federalism offers a role for states and the national government to play in addressing pandemics, race discrimination, and criminal law. It explains how the states and federal government have adopted increasingly different forms of government over time. It then introduces the parts. Part I deals with the judicial branch. The second part of the book looks at current issues facing the executive branch in the state and federal systems. The third part of the book deals with the legislative branch. The fourth part of the book, all in Chapter 9, takes vertical separation of powers one step further: federalism within federalism. The fifth part of the book, all in Chapter 10, addresses the ultimate recourse of liberty: the freedom to change our fifty-one constitutions.

Supplemental Material: Postglacial slip distribution along the Teton normal fault (Wyoming, USA), derived from tectonically offset geomorphological features

<div>Figures S1–S4 show the scarp profiles sorted by the type of the displaced landforms. Table S1 provides scarp height and/or vertical separation values determined by earlier studies. <br></div>

Supplemental Material: Postglacial slip distribution along the Teton normal fault (Wyoming, USA), derived from tectonically offset geomorphological features

<div>Figures S1–S4 show the scarp profiles sorted by the type of the displaced landforms. Table S1 provides scarp height and/or vertical separation values determined by earlier studies. <br></div>

Can vertical separation of species in trawls be utilized to reduce bycatch in shrimp fisheries?

Several shrimp trawl fisheries use a Nordmöre sorting grid to avoid bycatch of fish. However, small fish can pass through the grid. Therefore, the retention of juvenile fish often remains an issue during shrimp trawling. We investigated the vertical distribution of deepwater shrimp (Pandalus borealis) and dominant bycatch species at the point where the Nordmöre grid section is installed. This was achieved using a separator frame which split the net vertically into three compartments of equal entry size. Our results showed that shrimp predominately follow the lower part of the trawl belly, whereas species such as redfish (Sebastes spp.), cod (Gadus morhua), polar cod (Boreogadus saida) and American plaice (Hippoglossoides platessoides) preferred the mid-section in the aft of the trawl. Haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus) primarily entered through the upper section of the trawl belly. Using these results, we predict that a vertical separation device installed forward of a 19 mm Nordmöre grid combined with a 35 mm codend would result in a significant reduction in bycatch with only minor loss of shrimp.

Attribute-assisted characterization of basement faulting and the associated sedimentary sequence deformation in north-central Oklahoma

Patterns of recent seismogenic fault reactivation in the granitic basement of north-central Oklahoma necessitate an understanding of the structural characteristics of the inherited basement-rooted faults. Here, we focus on the Nemaha Uplift & Fault Zone (NFZ) and the surrounding areas, within which we analyze the top-basement and intrabasement structures in eight poststack time-migrated 3D seismic reflection data sets. Overall, our results reveal 115 fault traces at the top of the Precambrian basement with sub-vertical dips, and dominant trends of west-northwest–east-southeast, northeast–southwest, and north–south. We observe that proximal to the NFZ, faults dominantly strike north–south, are fewer (<10), and have the lowest areal density and intensity, while displaying the largest maximum vertical separation. However, farther away (>30 km) from the NFZ, faults exhibit predominantly northeast–southwest trends, fault areal density and intensity increases, and maximum vertical separation decreases steadily. Of the analyzed faults, approximately 49% are confined to the basement (intrabasement), ~28% terminate within the Arbuckle Group, and approximately 23% transect units above the Arbuckle Group. These observations suggest that (1) proximal to the NFZ, deformation is dominantly accommodated along a few but longer fault segments, most of the mapped faults cut into the sedimentary rocks, and most of the through-going faults propagate farther up-section above the Arbuckle Group; and (2) with distance away from the NFZ, deformation is diffuse and distributed across relatively shorter fault segments, and most basement faults do not extend into the sedimentary cover. The existence of through-going faults suggests the potential for spatially pervasive fluid movement along faults. Further, observations reveal pervasive, subhorizontal intrabasement reflectors (igneous sills) that terminate at the basement-sediment interface. Results have direct implications for wastewater injection and seismicity in north-central Oklahoma and southern Kansas. Additionally, they provide insight into the characteristics of basement-rooted structures around the NFZ region and suggest a means by which to characterize basement structures where seismic data are available.

Butyrate Conversion by Sulfate-Reducing and Methanogenic Communities from Anoxic Sediments of Aarhus Bay, Denmark

The conventional perception that the zone of sulfate reduction and methanogenesis are separated in high- and low-sulfate-containing marine sediments has recently been changed by studies demonstrating their co-occurrence in sediments. The presence of methanogens was linked to the presence of substrates that are not used by sulfate reducers. In the current study, we hypothesized that both groups can co-exist, consuming common substrates (H2 and/or acetate) in sediments. We enriched butyrate-degrading communities in sediment slurries originating from the sulfate, sulfate–methane transition, and methane zone of Aarhus Bay, Denmark. Sulfate was added at different concentrations (0, 3, 20 mM), and the slurries were incubated at 10 °C and 25 °C. During butyrate conversion, sulfate reduction and methanogenesis occurred simultaneously. The syntrophic butyrate degrader Syntrophomonas was enriched both in sulfate-amended and in sulfate-free slurries, indicating the occurrence of syntrophic conversions at both conditions. Archaeal community analysis revealed a dominance of Methanomicrobiaceae. The acetoclastic Methanosaetaceae reached high relative abundance in the absence of sulfate, while presence of acetoclastic Methanosarcinaceae was independent of the sulfate concentration, temperature, and the initial zone of the sediment. This study shows that there is no vertical separation of sulfate reducers, syntrophs, and methanogens in the sediment and that they all participate in the conversion of butyrate.