A Review of the Evolution of Dairy Policies and Regulations in Rwanda and Its Implications on Inputs and Services Delivery

The dairy sector in Rwanda plays a key role in improving nutrition and generating income mostly for rural households. Despite the Rwandan 1994 genocide that left around 80% of dairy cows decimated, the dairy sector has experienced significant growth in the past two decades through government, development organisations, and donor programs, and through the nascent vibrant public–private partnership. In this paper, we reviewed and documented the evolution of the dairy policies, programs, and regulations in Rwanda and how they have contributed to the development of the dairy sector. The policy change has impacted the provision and use of inputs and services that have shaped the sector's milk production and productivity, milk quality, and demand. The results suggest that various policy- and program-level interventions have positively contributed to the growth of the dairy sector and improved the livelihoods of low-income households. This has been achieved through increased access to inputs and services, enhanced capacities of the public and private sector to deliver services, strengthened dairy cooperatives' governance, and increased value proposition to members of various farmer groups and promotion of milk consumption. We find that some of the implemented policies and programs, such as the “Girinka” (one cow per poor family) program, Rwanda Dairy Competitiveness Program II, and Rwanda Dairy Development Project, have resulted in improved farmer access to improved cow breeds and improved milk quality and cow productivity through enhanced health inputs and other services. While the dairy policies, programs, and regulations in Rwanda have paved the way for the development of the dairy sector and contributed to the provision and use of inputs and services, there are still challenges that need to be addressed. Accessibility and use of veterinary and artificial insemination services are limited by the quality of veterinary products, while the inadequate quality of feeds leads to low productivity of improved cow breeds. Consequently, farmers' uptake and use of inputs and services can be enhanced through a strengthened capacity of milk collection centres and health and animal feed policies that guide and control the quality of veterinary products and feeds sold in the markets.

THE IMPACTS OF SPOUSES’ EDUCATION AND MATERNAL HEALTH ON FERTILITY IN PAKISTAN: AN ECONOMETRIC ANALYSIS

Purpose of the study: This paper primarily aims to recognize, develop, and examine the impacts of spouses’ education and maternal health status in cooperation with a variety of other covariates (demographic, social, economic, cultural, and attitudinal) on fertility in Pakistan. Methodology: This study mainly aimed to discover how spouse’s education and maternal health inputs help in controlling high fertility using four data sets of Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey (1990-91, 2006-07, 2012-13 and 2017-18) through count data model (Poisson regression). Main Findings: Our empirical results proved the hypotheses that educated spouses and healthy mothers practice family planning tools (contraceptives) to lower down the total fertility rates. Application of this study: Educated husband and wife will keep their family size smaller to devote more on children’s nutrition, health, and education. In general, rise in intentional birth control method make the education policy more helpful in reducing fertility. Findings draw government attention for embarking on public enlightenment campaigns to generate wakefulness regarding the long-term significance of fertility regulation in Pakistan. Novelty/Originality: The study is one of its kind because it attempted to explore the link among spouse’s education, maternal health inputs, and child’s health outcomes with fertility that could be used to benchmark for additional research in Pakistan.

The Economics of Health

The American healthcare system is vast and complex. An overview of the United States' healthcare system provides a view into the interrelated dynamics between three categories of factors: consumers, intermediaries, and providers. Consumers demand health inputs in order to produce health status that allows them to live productive lives. Intermediaries, such as insurance companies and government programs, reduce the direct cost of healthcare for consumers. Providers, such as hospitals and physicians, amongst others, have historically exhibited a degree of monopolistic power in the healthcare market. The modern trend towards managed care organizations, firms that vertically integrate multiple aspects of the healthcare market, aims to reduce costs imposed by such providers.

Status of fertilizer and seed subsidy in Nepal: review and recommendation

The study focuses on the review of existing programs and policies regarding input subsidy in Nepal especially in seeds and fertilizers. The study aims to review timeline in subsidy programs, budget details and progress based on the gleaning of the secondary information available in the Ministry of Agricultural Development. The assured budget allocation for chemical fertilizers subsidy has led to increment in consumption over the years. Nepal spent 52.29 billion Nepali Rupees in importing chemical fertilizers and 23.19 billion in subsidy in last seven years. Nepal Government has also been promoting organic fertilizers however, the subsidy allocated to this program has not been able to take the pace. Seed subsidy program has been found to be impressive; however, it is confined to wheat and paddy only. The subsidy program is targeted mainly to the small and marginal farmers. The seed subsidy program should be expanded to pulses and oilseed crops as well. The organic fertilizers should be promoted to maintain long-term soil health. Inputs subsidy policy and programs should cover all farmer categories.

Development, health, and international policy: the research and innovation dimension

This text main objective is to discuss development and health from the perspective of the influence of global health governance, using as the tracer the dimension of research, development, and innovation policies in health, which relate to both important inputs for the health system, like drugs and medicines, vaccines, diagnostic reagents, and equipment, and innovative concepts and practices for the improvement of health systems and public health. The authors examine the two main macro-processes that influence development and health: the post-2015 Development Agenda and the process under way in the World Health Organization concerning research and development, intellectual property, and access to health inputs. The article concludes, first, that much remains to be done for the Agenda to truly represent a coherent and viable international political pact, and that the two macro-processes related to innovation in health need to be streamlined. But this requires democratization of participation by the main stakeholders - patients and the general population of the poorest countries - since this is the only way to overcome a "zero sum" result in the clash in the current debates among member State representatives.