Breaking Point: Second Generation Suicide Theories

Suicide is the second leading cause of death among young people in the world. In this respect, it is emphasized that theories explaining suicidal behavior should be examined to understand the factors behind suicidal behavior. Many theorists have proposed different ideas in explaining suicidal behavior and its occurrence until the beginning of the twenty-first century. These theories are discussed as psychological, sociological, and biological theories. Psychoanalytic Theory, Spiritual Theory, Hopelessness Theory, and Escape Theory were among the psychological theories. It would not be wrong to call these theories first-generation suicide theories. On the other hand, after the 2000s, contemporary psychological theories dealing with suicidal behavior with risk factors have attracted attention. These theories have been called second-generation suicide theories because they have been put forward more recently. Considering the need to examine these theories under a single roof, in this article, the Interpersonal Theory of Suicide, Three-Step Theory of Suicide, Integrative Motivational-Volitional Model, and Fluid Vulnerability Theories are presented. Moreover, an overview of the psychological mechanisms underlying suicidal behavior development has been submitted, and a critical discussion has been made. These theories show that the factors and processes that support the development of suicidal thoughts are different from those associated with suicidal behavior. Hopelessness and suicidality are the common points of theories. In addition, these theories focused on dynamic risk factors and risk assessment that appear in life, change over time, and immediately bring them closer to suicide. Keywords: Suicide, suicide theories, risk factors, suicidal behavior

The Architecture of Cognitive Vulnerability to Depressive Symptoms in Adolescence: A Longitudinal Network Analysis Study

Rates of subclinical symptoms and full-blown depression significantly increase during adolescence. Hence, understanding how multiple cognitive risk factors are related to depression in adolescence is of major importance. For this purpose, we simultaneously considered multiple cognitive vulnerabilities, as proposed by three major cognitive theories for depression, namely Beck’s cognitive theory, hopelessness theory, and response style theory. In this four-wave study, we investigated the architecture, interplay, and stability of cognitive vulnerability mechanisms, depressive symptoms, and stressors in a large group of adolescents over a period of one year (n = 469; mean age = 15 years; 64% female). Network analysis was used to shed light on the structure of cognitive vulnerabilities in a data-driven fashion. Analyses revealed that different cognitive vulnerabilities were intertwined and automatic thoughts played the role of hub node in the network. Moreover, the interplay among cognitive vulnerabilities and depressive symptoms was already markedly stable in adolescence and did not change over a 12-month period. Finally, no evidence was found that cognitive vulnerabilities interacted with stressors, as proposed by diathesis-stress models. These findings advance our understanding of multiple cognitive risk factors for depression in adolescence.

The architecture of cognitive vulnerability to depressive symptoms in adolescence: A longitudinal network analysis study

Rates of subclinical symptoms and full-blown depression significantly increase during adolescence. Hence, understanding how multiple cognitive risk factors are related to depression in adolescence is of major importance. For this purpose, we simultaneously considered multiple cognitive vulnerabilities, as proposed by three major cognitive theories for depression, namely the Beck’s cognitive theory, the hopelessness theory, and the response style theory. In this four-wave study, we investigated the architecture and the stability of cognitive vulnerability mechanisms, depressive symptoms, and stressors in a large group of adolescents over a period of one year (n = 469; mean age = 15 years; 64% female). Network analysis was used to shed light on the structure of cognitive vulnerabilities in a data-driven fashion. Analyses revealed that the different cognitive vulnerabilities were intertwined and automatic thoughts played the role of hub node in the network. Moreover, the interplay among cognitive vulnerabilities and depressive symptoms was already markedly stable in adolescence and did not change over 12-month time. Finally, no evidence was found that cognitive vulnerabilities interacted with stressors, as proposed by diathesis-stress models. These findings advance our understanding of multiple cognitive risk factors for depression in adolescence.

Ansiedad y tristeza-depresión: Una aproximación desde la teoría de la indefensión-desesperanza

Anxiety and sadness-depression: An approximation from the perspective of the helplessness-hopelessness theory. The purpose of the study was to analyse the constructs of anxiety and sadness-depression from the perspective of the helplessness-hopelessness Theory. Two hundred twenty-nine adults completed five self-reported measures: The Anxiety Situations and Responses Inventory, the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, the Tridimensional Depression Questionnaire, the Beck Depression Inventory, and the Attributional Style Questionnaire. The results of correlation analysis and regression models showed strong associations between the different components of anxiety and depression. Moreover, negative attributional style significantly predicted anxiety and depression, especially the cognitive dimension of these constructs, for both female and male participants. We concluded that these emotions share a common element: a characteristic attributional style related to a broader construct, the “negative emotionality”, that includes both anxiety and depression. Keywords: Attributional style; helplessness; negative affect; emotionality. Resumen: El propósito del estudio fue analizar la ansiedad y la tristeza-depresión desde la teoría de la indefensión-desesperanza. Doscientos veintinueve adultos completaron cinco medidas de autoinforme: el Inventario de Situaciones y Respuestas de Ansiedad, el Cuestionario de Ansiedad Estado Rasgo, el Cuestionario Tridimensional para la Depresión, el Inventario de Depresión de Beck, y el Cuestionario de Estilo Atribucional. Los resultados de los análisis correlacionales y los modelos de regresión efectuados arrojaron asociaciones fuertes entre los diferentes componentes de la ansiedad y la depresión. Además, el estilo atribucional negativo predijo de manera significativa la ansiedad y la depresión, especialmente a nivel cognitivo, en mujeres y varones. Se concluyó que el elemento común a dichas emociones puede ser un estilo atribucional característico relacionado con un constructo más amplio, la “emocionalidad negativa”, que comprende tanto la ansiedad como la depresión. Palabras clave: Estilo atribucional; indefensión; afecto negativo; emocionalidad.

Indirect Effect of Hopelessness on Depression Symptoms Through Perceived Burdensomeness

Hopelessness theory of depression posits that hopelessness due to negative inferences may serve as a proximal and sufficient cause of depression, while interpersonal theories suggest that interpersonal stress resulting from relationship problems and social rejection may lead to symptoms of depression. We propose that the two perspectives can be integrated by examining a model in which hopelessness predicts depression symptoms through two specific interpersonal stress constructs, thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness, in a sample of university students from Macau ( N = 350). Results of mediation analysis revealed a significant indirect effect of hopelessness on depression symptoms through perceived burdensomeness (indirect effect = .45; 95% confidence interval = .28 to .65), but not thwarted belongingness (indirect effect = .06; 95% confidence interval = −.05 to .18). Alternative models were also tested. When each interpersonal construct was treated as a separate mediator without controlling for the other, significant indirect effects of both perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness were found. Moreover, when hopelessness was assigned as the mediator and interpersonal constructs as independent variables, significant indirect effects were likewise found for perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness. Findings suggest that the two different yet compatible views about depression—hopelessness and interpersonal theories—may be integrated to provide a better understanding of the process of how depression symptoms occur. It also reinforces the importance of considering interpersonal factors in the study of depression, especially in societies where interpersonal relationships are highly valued.

Comparison of Helplessness and Hopelessness as Sources of Cognitive Vulnerability Among Black and White College Students

The Cognitive Style Questionnaire (CSQ), an expansion of the Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ), was created as an enhanced measure of cognitive vulnerability to depression using a hopelessness theory framework. However, the CSQ’s development emphasized facets of cognitive vulnerability consistent with a Eurocentric worldview. Consequently, the CSQ may inadvertently degrade rather than enhance assessment of cognitive vulnerability to depression for Black participants whose vulnerability may be shaped by a different sociopolitical context. Participants were 259 White and 180 Black college students. As predicted, cognitive vulnerability to depression assessed via the reformulated learned helplessness (ASQ) but not hopelessness theory (CSQ) was associated with increased symptoms of depression for Black participants. The opposite pattern of results was found for White participants for whom hopelessness (CSQ), but not helplessness (ASQ) was associated with higher levels of depression symptoms. The current findings support the need for more extensive examination of social context and race in assessing cognitive vulnerability to depression.

A longitudinal twin and sibling study of the hopelessness theory of depression in adolescence and young adulthood

BackgroundMaladaptive cognitive biases such as negative attributional style and hopelessness have been implicated in the development and maintenance of depression. According to the hopelessness theory of depression, hopelessness mediates the association between attributional style and depression. The aetiological processes underpinning this influential theory remain unknown. The current study investigated genetic and environmental influences on hopelessness and its concurrent and longitudinal associations with attributional style and depression across adolescence and emerging adulthood. Furthermore, given high co-morbidity between depression and anxiety, the study investigated whether these maladaptive cognitions constitute transdiagnostic cognitive content common to both internalizing symptoms.MethodA total of 2619 twins/siblings reported attributional style (mean age 15 and 17 years), hopelessness (mean age 17 years), and depression and anxiety symptoms (mean age 17 and 20 years).ResultsPartial correlations revealed that attributional style and hopelessness were uniquely associated with depression but not anxiety symptoms. Hopelessness partially mediated the relationship between attributional style and depression. Hopelessness was moderately heritable (A = 0.37, 95% confidence interval 0.28–0.47), with remaining variance accounted for by non-shared environmental influences. Independent pathway models indicated that a set of common genetic influences largely accounted for the association between attributional style, hopelessness and depression symptoms, both concurrently and across development.ConclusionsThe results provide novel evidence that associations between attributional style, hopelessness and depression symptoms are largely due to shared genetic liability, suggesting developmentally stable biological pathways underpinning the hopelessness theory of depression. Both attributional style and hopelessness constituted unique cognitive content in depression. The results inform molecular genetics research and cognitive treatment approaches.