Making An Observation Without Making An Observation: “Seeing” Knowledge Embedded In The Physical World With One’s Own Eyes

In electron shelving, one kind of quantum jump in which an electron in an atom moves in a discontinuous fashion to another energy level, a person can "see" knowledge that a weak transition (which is very slow) has occurred since it is proven that a strong transition (which is very fast) has not occurred in the time in which the strong transition can occur. This is a null measurement. There is no physical detection of the photon in the weak transition. There is only the logical deduction that the weak transition occurred since one cannot detect the photon in the strong transition, the only other possible transition. Looking at the interruption in the fluorescence that occurs in the strong transition, a “dark” interval, is "seeing" the knowledge resulting from the logical deduction. The significance of a null measurement in leading to the conclusion that one can "see" the knowledge resulting from a logical deduction is discussed. The null measurement in the weak transition is one form of Einstein’s spooky action where something not physical occurring in the possible strong transition leads to the occurrence of the weak transition. (2021 April Meeting of the American Physical Society, https://meetings.aps.org/Meeting/APR21/Session/KP01.48)

On the Question of the Interpretation and Correlation of Fictions in the Criminal Procedural and Forensic Aspects

The article is devoted to the study of the essence, signs and correlation of fictions in the criminal procedural and forensic aspects. The methodological basis of the study was the classical and modern general philosophical and legal developments of the indicated problem, the universal dialectical method of scientific knowledge, which is universal in nature, as well as the methods of logical deduction, induction, cognitive methods and techniques of observation, comparison, analysis, generalization and description. The authors carried out a critical and analytical review of the classifications of legal fictions proposed by various scientists, the definitions of the concepts of «criminally relevant fiction», «forensic fiction», etc. As a result of the study, the authors come to the conclusion that the nature of criminal procedural and forensic fictions is different, however both of these constructs are united by their essence, which consists in the recognition of a deduction (phenomenon, event, etc.) that does not correspond to reality as existing, valid, real, as well as their criminal relevance. These phenomena are also consistent in the general rule for them, subject to strict observance: the use of both methods in no case should harm, limit the rights and freedoms of the individual.

A Contribution to Pre-Polish Antiquity

In many issues, a scientific discussion about the beginnings of Slavicism (Pol. Słowiańszczyzna) raises doubts and controversy. This essay is not a contribution about another excavation, but rather a statement at a higher level of generality - an attempt at a kind of synthesizing approach on the basis of logical deduction. The author stands on the side of supporters of the indigenous theory of the origin of the Slavs, which he argues by citing several logical justifications. The considerations concern a fairly wide range - from the Lusatian culture in the 8th century BC, when Scythian statehood dominated in its neighbourhood, to the 15th century and the great victory of the Kingdom of Poland in alliance with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania over the state of the Teutonic Order. The mainstream consideration, however, concerns the war tradition of the early Slavs and the first Piasts. The emphasis is also on the specificity of the martial art of Lechites and Poles, compared to the traditions of neighbouring peoples.

Assessment of Security Risks in Railway Transport using the Fuzzy Logical Deduction Method

The aim of the paper is to inform about the possibilities of using a fuzzy logical deduction in security practice. The fuzzy logic deduction allows to record the management experience in IF - THEN rules and does not require a precise description of the parameters of the controlled function. This property is an important asset for risk assessment in an incompletely defined environment. The application of the method is demonstrated in the security risk assessment of the physical protection of the national railway with a focus on the corridor railway lines and with regard to the future construction of high-speed railway lines in the Czech Republic. At present, it is a generally accepted fact that securing basic transport functions is a prerequisite for successful crisis management. These functions can be specified as road and rail negotiability.

The Approach to Industry 4.0 within the Slovak Business Environment

Academics, executives and top managers have solid, but also diverse, views on the Industry 4.0 issue, as do the employment policymakers. Without urgent and targeted measures to manage the short-term transition and shape the labor force with the skills needed for the future, governments will have to face increasing unemployment and social impacts, while companies will have to deal with a sluggish consumer base. The main goal of this paper is to find out how managers are perceived and informed about the Industry 4.0 concept and how quickly these views are changing. To accomplish this goal, methods such as analysis, synthesis, statistical methods and logical deduction are to used along with the conducted survey being executed by a questioner method. The conducted survey presented by the authors in this paper aims to support the discussion and open up opportunities for further action by providing views to HR managers in strategic employers who are among the leading representatives of new trends and are the key actors in the implementation of future labor development strategies in the Slovak Republic.

Pattern separation is the key driver of expectation-modulated memory

The hippocampus uses pattern separation and pattern completion in a continuous manner to successfully encode and retrieve memories1,2. However, whether and how cognitive factors might modulate the dynamics between these types of computation is not well understood. Here we examine the role of expectation in shifting the hippocampus to perform pattern separation. Expectation can be built up through multiple contextual exposures leading to prediction (as in a learnt contingency) or through logical deduction based on a previous mnemonic response. Participants first learned a contingency between a cue and an object’s category (man-made or natural). Then, at encoding, one third of the cues that preceded the to-be-memorised objects violated the studied rule. At test, participants performed an old/new recognition task with old items (targets) and a set of parametrically manipulated (very similar to dissimilar) new foils for each object. We explored the effects of both contextual expectation, manipulated at initial encoding, and mnemonic-attribution expectation, driven by the mnemonic decisions taken on previous retrieval trials. For example, a target would be unexpected if in a previous trial a similar foil had been erroneously accepted as old. Memory was found to be better for foils of high and mid similarity to contextually unexpected targets at encoding, compared to expected ones. Additionally, violations of mnemonic-attribution expectation also yielded improved memory performance when the level of foil similarity was high. These results suggest that violations of both contextual expectation and mnemonic-attribution expectation engage pattern separation, resulting in better discrimination performance for these items. Importantly, this mechanism is engaged when input differentiation is required in order to make a correct recognition decision.

Theories of Contract Law

Theories of contract law fall into three basic categories: formalist, interpretive, and normative. Formalist theories proceed by first purporting to identify a core set of rules that are justified on the ground that they are self-evident axioms, and then purporting to derive the remaining rules by logical deduction from the axioms. Interpretive theories proceed by describing areas of contract law and then determining the social propositions that are to be found in the most fundamental doctrines in the area or that meet some standard of fit with and best justify or rationalize doctrine in the area. Under normative theories the content of contract law depends on the rules that are generated by properly weighted and reconciled policy, moral, and empirical propositions. Unlike the objectives of formalist and interpretive theories, the objective of normative theories is to formulate the best possible rules of contract law.

Introduction

The critical and historical analysis of medical reasoning begins from the central importance of certainty in practice and research. The need for certainty manifests in preference for objective tests, particularly their overutilization, and evidence-based medicine used synonymously with randomized control trials. The variety of manifestations in each patient and each subject of research is a challenge to certainty. The response is a choice of epistemic perspectives. Either there are as many “diseases” as there are patients, or there is an economical set of diseases, defined by principles and facts, by which any patient can be understood. The latter suggests a type of logical deduction, and deductive logic is indeed the model. However, deduction, while providing certainty, does not generate new knowledge. Rather, derivative logical fallacies must be used that provide utility at the expense of certainty. Similarly, induction also is problematic. The implications of the conundrum and responses are introduced.

The Value of Statistical and Logical Thinking

There is a perception that intuition, held important in some forms of medical reasoning, is somehow different from “scientific” medical reasoning. Such intuitions are arrived at quickly, suggesting no need to think about it as one might do in a logical deduction. Furthermore, intuitions typically are qualitative or ordinal in nature rather than cardinal if numbers are applied. Consequently, there is the presumption that statistics are not applicable in this form of medical reasoning, perhaps because numerical rules cannot be applied. However, the rules that guide statistical reasoning are not only numerical, they also arise from having to deal with necessary logical fallacies, such as the partial syllogism. Efforts to mitigate the risks of having to use logical fallacies find their way into the rules of statistical inference. However, these same efforts can be applied to nonnumeric analysis, such as intuition itself: hence their value.