Logical Fallacies and Misinterpretations that Hinder Progress in Translational Addiction Neuroscience

Substance use disorders (SUDs) are heterogenous and complex, making the development of translationally predictive rodent and non-human primate models to uncover their neurobehavioral underpinnings difficult. Neuroscience-focused outcomes have become highly prevalent, and with this, the notion that SUDs are disorders of the brain embraced as a dominant theoretical orientation to understand SUD etiology and treatment. These efforts, however, have led to few efficacious pharmacotherapies, and in some cases (as with cocaine or methamphetamine), no pharmacotherapies have translated from preclinical models for clinical use. In this review and theoretical commentary, we first describe the development of animal models of SUDs from a historical perspective. We then define and discuss three logical fallacies including 1) circular explanation, 2) affirming the consequent, and 3) reification that can apply to developed models. We then provide three case examples in which conceptual or logical issues exist in common methods (i.e., behavioral economic demand, escalation, and reinstatement). Alternative strategies to refocus behavioral models are suggested for the field in an attempt to better bridge the translational divide between animal models and the clinical condition of SUDs.

The Power of Words in Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar: An Insight into Analyzing Julius Caesar from the Perspective of the Logical Fallacies

This research aims at utilizing the knowledge of logical fallacies in analyzing Shakespeare’s masterpiece Julius Caesar. Spotting these fallacies in the characters’ actions and speeches is more likely to expand our horizon by grasping what is hidden between the lines and beyond the surface dialogue, thus revealing the true intentions of the characters and the subliminal messages beyond what they say. To achieve this goal, an explanation for each fallacy is provided. Also, various examples of fallacies committed by Donald Trump in the American presidential debate in addition to some of his fallacious tweets and other examples are thoroughly analyzed. It is found that by providing meticulous analysis for the fallacies under question readers would be protected from being victimized to any ambiguous and/or language literary interpretation.

Critical Thinking in University through a Curriculum-wide Reading and Writing Project

Critical thinking has gained popularity in the English as a foreign language (EFL) educational arena of late in Japan due to the Ministry of Education (MEXT) updating its requirements of English education to include logical thinking. This has caused the need for educators in Japan to quickly adapt to the inclusion of logical thinking, and by extension, critical thinking in their curriculum (MEXT, 2011) from 2013. Even though MEXT has required critical thinking to be included in the classroom, it seems very little has been done to include true critical thinking into textbooks and institutions’ curriculum designs. One crucial component of the language teaching curriculum is the ability to think rationally, objectively, and deeply about a topic, or in other words, to think critically. Critical thinking has been shown to foster students’ abilities to analyze, evaluate, and judge the value of the information presented to them both inside, and outside, the classroom (Lund, 2016). Critical thinking also helps students to make their own decisions related to their academic, and future employment, success (Nold, 2017). In a university-level reading and writing course in Japan, for example, students must create manuscripts at beginner to advanced levels that somewhat adhere to the expectations of academic English communities (Fang & Schleppegrell, 2010) when it comes to topic development and utilizing source information. In order to reflect on, and thereby judge the veracity of, the information presented to them either by their textbook in the classroom or by external sources, critical thinking skills allow students to deconstruct, reflect upon, and assign value to information sources. This also allows them to construct their own content on two levels, one, projecting their creativity as independent thinkers, and two, linguistically as writers who can think about a topic more deeply. The purpose of this paper is to share the planning, design, and implementation of a critical thinking reading and writing project which was introduced into the second-year EFL reading and writing focused courses at Tokai University from the spring and fall semesters of 2019. The reading and writing course, named Academic English (AE), was split into three levels depending upon the students’ performance in their first-year English courses. Each level of the AE course had a project book that was individualized for their corresponding textbook and level. The project’s focus, for all levels, was to develop critical thinking skills through the introduction of reflective thinking, logical fallacies, and research skills. At the end of the project, students were asked to apply their critical thinking skills to their textbook and research the veracity of the information presented to them in one of their required readings during the course. The overall reception of the project by the students was positive and results of a post-project questionnaire showed that students felt they had gained some mastery over critical thinking on subjects both in the classroom and in their lives. The project has seen success in allowing students to become learners who are more independent in their thinking, more critical in their reception to information provided to them, and better writers who are able to think on a topic more deeply and logically.

Alternative Facts in Musicology and Vechnaya Pamyat' in Shostakovich's Symphony No. 5

The assertions, refutations, and counter-refutations concerning two core pieces of Richard Taruskin’s studies on Russian music—Tchaikovsky’s Symphony No. 6 and Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 5—provide a starting point for discussion about the possibilities, limits, and obligations of musicological interpretation. Moreover, an important aspect of the discussion is the phenomenon of “alternative facts,” both in publication and in pedagogy, and possibly in music itself. Taruskin argues against the logical fallacies of overly specific or overly simplistic interpretations, but hesitates to fully interpret certain music himself, thereby participating in the web of alternative facts. Taruskin refutes popular myths about biographical meanings in Tchaikovsky’s symphony, but in so doing, also seems to reject a tragic reading of any kind. He explains away various musical structures and extroversive references, but fails to explore why those elements are in fact present. As for Shostakovich’s symphony, Taruskin notes its saturation with musical topics, but ignores their allusive specificity, downplaying their significance altogether for what he calls their transferability. Yet Taruskin himself identifies an allusion to a specific Orthodox hymn, and therefrom draws specific conclusions. His evidence for calling the passage a “literal imitation” is actually flawed, but a truly literal quotation of this very hymn may be present throughout the entire symphony, and may act as a sort of species of alternative fact itself. In any case, something that specific, and its placement in the symphonic structure, deserve notice and demand specificity of interpretation.

Psychotherapy, psychoanalysis and anthropology: how a psychiatrist becomes a sophist (commentary to Joseph Zislin, md, part 1)

How and why psychoanalysts become storytellers is a two-part article by Joseph Zislin, MD published by the Neurology Bulletin in 2020. In this paper Dr. Zislin studies several quasi-psychoanalytical essays on famous fairy-tales, published by physicians and psychologists online. Surprisingly, it is from his own philological discussion of their texts which Dr. Zislin draws conclusions about therapeutic abilities of the authors, as well as about the relevance of psychoanalysis to clinical practice and social studies alike. The present text is a commentary to Dr. Zislins How and why psychoanalysts become storytellers. It studies the ways of gathering and presenting data exercised in the original paper, as well as the strategies of argumentation Dr. Zislin chooses. Although one cannot tell for sure whether the data presented were distorted on purpose or not, choosing the strategy of argumentation is always a more or less conscious decision. Some analytic tools of rhetoric allow one to demonstrate that Dr. Zislin uses argumentation unacceptable in academic writing that of deceptive reasoning, logical fallacies and sophisms. The present commentary is to highlight a problematic issue: should a practicing physician adhere to rules and norms of other disciplines, once he goes beyond the strict academic field of clinical medicine?

ARISTOTLE ON RHETORIC AND POLITICAL PERSUASIVE SKILLS: EXAMPLES FROM POLITICAL CAMPAIGNS IN AFRICAN POLITICS

Aristotle’s theory and principles of Rhetoric have an application to political communication. In this paper, we make a descriptive, critical and analytical exposition of the features of Rhetoric according to Aristotle with a focus on their application to political campaigns in Africa and elsewhere. While exposing the persuasive skills of Rhetoric we associate them with some logical fallacies which political speakers commit in their maneuvers to win credibility before the electorates. As Rhetoric is essentially an art of persuasion it is prone to some immoral stances. These may include deceiving and objectifying the audience for the political interests of the speakers, reciprocation of defamatory and hate speeches among political speakers, inciting of hatred and violence, etc. all aiming at persuading the electorate at all cost and by all means.

The science of spin: targeted strategies to manufacture doubt with detrimental effects on environmental and public health

Background Numerous groups, such as the tobacco industry, have deliberately altered and misrepresented knowable facts and empirical evidence to promote an agenda, often for monetary benefit, with consequences for environmental and public health. Previous research has explored cases individually, but none have conducted an in-depth comparison between cases. The purpose of this study was to compile a comprehensive list of tactics used by disparate groups and provide a framework for identifying further instances of manufactured doubt. Methods We examined scholarly books, peer-reviewed articles, well-researched journalism pieces, and legal evidence related to five disparate industries and organizations selected for their destructive impacts on environmental and public health (tobacco, coal, and sugar industries, manufacturers of the pesticide Atrazine, and the Marshall Institute, an institute focused on climate change research, and other scientists from the era that associated with those in the Institute). These documents provided evidence for a list of tactics used to generate pro-industry spin and manufacture doubt about conferred harm. We then identified trends among sets of strategies that could explain their differential use or efficacy. Results We recognized 28 unique tactics used to manufacture doubt. Five of these tactics were used by all five organizations, suggesting that they are key features of manufactured doubt. The intended audience influences the strategy used to misinform, and logical fallacies contribute to their efficacy. Conclusions This list of tactics can be used by others to build a case that an industry or group is deliberately manipulating information associated with their actions or products. Improved scientific and rhetorical literacy could be used to render them less effective, depending on the audience targeted, and ultimately allow for the protection of both environmental health and public health more generally.

Gnoseology-Based Analysis of the Relationship Between Truth and Fallacy

This article concerns the concept of fallacy in its dialectical relation to truth in scientific under­standing. It highlights a variety of definitions attempting to clarify the meaning of fallacy, which is ground zero for the authors’ definition of the aforementioned concept. It is stated that fallacy is the necessary step towards truth. It is explained why fallacy cannot be identified with incomplete knowledge, logical fallacies and falsehood. Also, this article highlights the main doctrinal philosophical and methodological foundations of fallacies and criteria for defining the truth.

Giving Facts a fighting chance against misinformation

<p>Skeptical Science is a volunteer-run website publishing refutations of climate misinformation. Some members of the Skeptical Science team actively research best-practices refutation techniques while other team members use the provided materials to share debunking techniques effectively either in writing or through presentations. In this submission, we highlight several of our publications and projects, designed to help to give facts a fighting chance against misinformation. While some of the resources are nominally related to climate change, the underlying techniques apply across different topics. Resources include the Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) “Denial101x - Making sense of Climate Science Denial” co-produced with the University of Queensland in 2015, the “FLICC-framework” explaining the taxonomy of science denial with its five main techniques (fake experts, logical fallacies, impossible expectations, cherry picking, and conspiracy theories), the Debunking Handbook 2020 which summarizes research findings and expert advice about debunking misinformation, and the Conspiracy Theory Handbook distilling research findings and expert advice on dealing with conspiracy theories. We will also introduce the Cranky Uncle smartphone game, using critical thinking, gamification, and cartoons to interactively explain science denial techniques and build resilience against misinformation.</p>