Believe-in counterfactual thinking and psychological capital

Counterfactual thinking puts a negative reality and better or worse alternative outcomes in the mind simultaneously. The implicit theory of intelligence considers whether individuals believe that intelligence can be promoted by effort or not. Previous studies suggest that counterfactual thinking interacting with the implicit theory of intelligence would evoke a belief in an attainable future or a belief that a certain future could one day be reality, thereby producing positive effects. Three studies examined the hypothesis that belief in an attainable future through counterfactual thinking would predict psychological capital, which is a positive developmental state of individuals. In Study 1 ( N = 62), belief in an attainable future was operationalized by introducing the implicit theory of intelligence and counterfactual thinking. Incremental theorists had higher psychological capital when engaged in counterfactual thinking than controls. In Study 2 ( N = 71), belief in an attainable future was operationalized by introducing the likelihood of the antecedents and of the outcomes, which were conceptualized as how people believe in their counterfactual thinking. Belief in an attainable future predicted psychological capital even after controlling for the influence of future time perspective and present-fatalistic time perspective, two concepts that depict how individuals process time-related information. In Study 3 ( N = 76), we conducted an intervention study. Participants in the experimental group were directed to construct attainable counterfactual thinking for one week. The experimental group had higher psychological capital than the control group. Across three studies, the findings consistently provided primary support for the hypothesis that belief in an attainable future would predict psychological capital.

IMPLICIT THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE: THE IMPACT OF INCREMENTAL MINDSET INTERVENTION ON STUDENT'S ACHIEVEMENT GOALS

The achievement goal approach has led to educational and social- psychology as a foundation of practical education in schools. The implicit theory of intelligence, which is one of the leading models in motivation, is deep-rooted in goal theory. This theory suggests the student's belief system is divided into an entity and incremental mindset, which links each with a specific goal orientation: learning, performance, learning avoidance, and performance-avoidance. Therefore, the implicit theory of intelligence is considered an antecedent of achievement goals, which means that by changing the student's mindset, their goals and achievement levels will also change. This study investigates the effect of an incremental mindset intervention on student's achievement goals through a quasi-experimental design. For this purpose, a population of fifty-five eighth-grade female students was classified into control and experimental groups. Both groups performed the pre-, post-, and follow-up tests of goal orientations. The two-way repeated measures of MANOVA results showed a statistically significant difference in the impact of the applied intervention on student's goal orientation between the tested groups against time (F=5.585, P<0.001, η2=0.100).

Correlation of School Well-Being Indicators and the Implicit Theory of Intelligence in Well-Being Schoolchildren

Based on the results of studies by representatives of positive psychology, the authors suggested that one of the most important results of upbringing and instruction in high school is the implicit theory of schoolchild intelligence that is assimilated in the interaction of a teenager with peers, parents and teachers. At present, confidence in the students’ own intellectual viability is considered as priority goals of school education. At the same time, there is a lack of research on the correlation of indicators of implicit theories of intelligence and school well-being. The study involved 169 secondary school students from the 7th to 10th grade of the city of Yekaterinburg. As a result of the study of correlation relationships, the authors found that the adoption of the theory of accumulated intelligence, an enriched personality and the goal of teaching students with a high level of psychological well-being is associated with a positive attitude towards school. The self-esteem of teaching students with a low level of psychological well-being will be positive provided that the adolescent has a positive attitude towards school and teachers, with a negative attitude towards parents.

Measuring a Mastery Goal Structure Using the TARGET Framework

In prior research, goal structures have been measured as macroscopic and holistic constructs referring to all activities in the classroom setting associated with learning and performing on a meta-level. A more comprehensive approach for identifying concrete classroom structures that should foster students’ mastery goals is provided by the multidimensional TARGET framework with its six instructional dimensions (Task, Autonomy, Recognition, Grouping, Evaluation, Time). However, measurement instruments assessing students’ perceptions of all TARGET dimensions are largely lacking. The main aim of this study was to develop and validate a new student questionnaire for comprehensive assessment of the perceived TARGET classroom structure (the Goal Structure Questionnaire – GSQ). Scales were constructed using a rational-empirical strategy based on classical conceptions of the TARGET dimensions and prior empirical research. The instrument was tested in a study using a sample of 1,080 secondary school students. Findings indicate that the scales are reliable, internally valid, and externally valid in terms of relationships with students’ achievement goals. More concretely, analyses revealed that the TARGET mastery goal structure positively predicts mastery goals, performance approach goals, and an incremental implicit theory of intelligence. No associations were found with performance avoidance goals.

Conceptual Issues and Assessment of Implicit Theories

We reviewed fundamental conceptual issues and the state of research on the definition and assessment of implicit theories. We grappled with the following controversies related to the construct: (a) Are entity theory and incremental theory opposite ends of the same continuum? (b) How can scholars use more sophisticated methodologies to classify individuals into either the entity or incremental theory? (c) Given shifting conceptions of what intelligence is, how can scholars refine the implicit theory of intelligence construct? Given these conceptual issues, we then addressed practical issues related to the assessment of implicit theories. We point to the need for more sophisticated methods such as implicit association tests and the use of virtual environments as more “stealthy” ways to assess the construct.