Sustainable Water and Sanitation in Sierra Leone: Impact evaluation of the ‘Improved WASH Services in WAU and WAR Districts’ project

Between October 2016 and March 2019, the Freetown WASH Consortium, led by Oxfam with Against Hunger, Concern Worldwide and Save the Children as members, carried out the 'Improved WASH Services in Western Area Urban (WAU) and Western Area Rural (WAR) Districts' project. Broadly, the project aimed to improve the availability, accessibility, affordability and sustainability of integrated water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services, in alignment with the Government of Sierra Leone's national agenda on Ebola recovery and increased preparedness against possible future outbreaks. This Effectiveness Review evaluates the success of this project to increase the sustainability of water and sanitation systems and services. Using a quasi-experimental, mixed method evaluation design, impact is assessed among individuals, households and communities in intervention and comparison areas. Community-level factors contributing to better individual- and household-level outcomes are explored. Find out more by reading the full report now.

How to Anticipate Public Health Indicators Using Wastewater SARS-CoV-2 Concentration During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Madrid Region Case Study

This study analyzes the presence and dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 in sewage sanitation systems in the Madrid region. The statistical results and data generated are presented daily via a platform as a tool for the early detection of SARS-CoV-2 and its spread based on the WBE (wastewater-based epidemiological) approach. The number of sampled points amounts to a total of 289 sampling points in terms of SARS-CoV-2 concentration that collects over six million and a half inhabitants’ discharges. The project was developed by Canal de Isabel II, the water utility company from Madrid. The research evaluates the correlation found between SARS-CoV-2 concentration in wastewater and the following public health indicators: incidence rate, reported active cases and COVID-19 hospitalization data (regular hospitalization and ICU admission cases).SARS-CoV-2 presence and dynamics in wastewater show a strong connection with both 14-day incidence rates with active infection and reported COVID-19 hospitalizations. A lag varying from 3 to 8 days between wastewater presence and hospitalizations is explained because the infection is found in the feces of patients before symptom onset. The resulting data are available for consultancy on the company’s website (named VIGÍA project) as well as on the regional government’s websites.The results have already been useful to anticipate the second and third COVID-19 waves in Madrid. Information is shared daily with health authorities for consultancy and decision-making. The results are available as an aggregation for the entire region and for each sewershed.

Examining the Role of NGOs in Community Water and Sanitation Improvement

This chapter examined the role of NGOs in water and sanitation improvement and the effects on the residence of Tunayilli in the Sagnarigu District. The design was descriptive. Questionnaires and interview guides were administered to household heads and key informants. Findings revealed that the water and sanitation condition in Tunayilli is generally poor. NGOs play diverse roles including the provision of water and sanitation facilities, community mobilization, and facility maintenance to ensure their sustained usability. However, inadequate funding, weak community mobilization, poor maintenance culture, and low education are challenges to water and sanitation improvement programmes of NGOs in the community. Measures to mitigate these includes increased central government funding, public education, community involvement, enforcement of sanitation by-laws, and regular maintenance of water and sanitation systems in the community. Stakeholders should intensify and sustain their educational campaigns. Meanwhile, by-laws on water and sanitation should be enforced and offenders prosecuted.

In situ treatment technologies for pit latrines to mitigate groundwater contamination by fecal pathogens: a review of recent technical advances

On-site sanitation systems such as pit latrines are extensively used around the world, while there is a growing number of evidence documenting the impact of pit latrines on groundwater quality that may affect human health. Hence, this paper summarizes the various safe-sanitation technologies by broadly categorizing them into fecal pathogen disinfection methods (anaerobic digestion, chemical disinfection, biological additives, solar pasteurization and vermicomposting) and capturing methods (pit lining and permeable reactive barriers, the latter of which simultaneously capture and sanitize fecal sludge in pit latrines). While some of the reviewed technologies have been widely practiced for mitigating microbial contamination of the groundwater, others are still in the early stage of commercialization and field validation. Though there are challenges to the selection and adoption of the most appropriate technology, this paper discusses the readiness of each technology as a stand-alone fecal sludge management solution.

Emergency Relief Station

<p>This thesis explores the potential large public architecture offers for efficient transformation into a relief station in post-disaster situations. The increase in catastrophic disasters globally has demonstrated a widespread lack of preparedness in these situations. There is a shortage of safe, comfortable, and self-sufficient hubs for coordinating relief activity, for sheltering temporarily and providing emergency care to disaster victims, and relief personnel. Disaster relief generally involves the urgent dispatching of medical supplies, food, water, blankets, sanitation systems, temporary shelters, and relief personnel to affected locations. Following the recent devastating spate of earthquakes and flood disasters in New Zealand makeshift relief centres were set up in public parks, schools, and community facilities to house displaced victims. These were set up to function as efficient relief stations. The facilities also depend heavily on deployed relief supplies and the public for donations and support. In addition, these relief hubs are quickly overwhelmed and in adverse weather conditions, they are inadequate for providing warm, dry, hygienic, and safe environments for sheltering large numbers of people including the injured and the sick. This thesis explores how an airport may be designed for a dual purpose and the feasibility and complexity of planning and designing public space for transformation into a disaster relief station.</p>

Emergency Relief Station

<p>This thesis explores the potential large public architecture offers for efficient transformation into a relief station in post-disaster situations. The increase in catastrophic disasters globally has demonstrated a widespread lack of preparedness in these situations. There is a shortage of safe, comfortable, and self-sufficient hubs for coordinating relief activity, for sheltering temporarily and providing emergency care to disaster victims, and relief personnel. Disaster relief generally involves the urgent dispatching of medical supplies, food, water, blankets, sanitation systems, temporary shelters, and relief personnel to affected locations. Following the recent devastating spate of earthquakes and flood disasters in New Zealand makeshift relief centres were set up in public parks, schools, and community facilities to house displaced victims. These were set up to function as efficient relief stations. The facilities also depend heavily on deployed relief supplies and the public for donations and support. In addition, these relief hubs are quickly overwhelmed and in adverse weather conditions, they are inadequate for providing warm, dry, hygienic, and safe environments for sheltering large numbers of people including the injured and the sick. This thesis explores how an airport may be designed for a dual purpose and the feasibility and complexity of planning and designing public space for transformation into a disaster relief station.</p>

Onsite sanitation and quantification of faecal sludge in the city of Yaoundé in Cameroon

This study aims to describe the onsite sanitation and the quantification of faecal sludge in the city of Yaoundé. The city of Yaoundé, The population of Yaoundé City is about 3.1 million inhabitants in 2018 , will reach 4.7 million in 2030 with an average annual growth rate of 3.5%. The city of Yaoundé is dominated by an autonomous sanitation system which is used by 99% of households. Domestic wastewater of the city is mainly dealt through on-site sanitation systems represented by septic tanks, traditional pit latrines, ventilated improved pit latrines, etc A survey was carried out among 1100 households in the city of Yaoundé. The choice of household to be surveyed was made according to the stratified sample method. It is reviewed, the methods of quantification of existing used sludge, in order to choose a method adapted to the context of the city of Yaoundé. Several criteria are analyzed to access to the sludge produced by households: the existence or not of roads, their state of deterioration, the types of sanitation structure, the position of the structure in relation to the waterways, etc. Among the methods for quantifying the sludge explored, we found that "the specific production method" is more adapted in the context. But this method has been revised in order to integrate the analyzing elements on the accessibility of the facilities. The application of the method used has been done on 120 pit emptying during two months (june and july 2018). The choice of these pits as been done hazardly on the potential of 600 pit emptying in the city of Yaoundé during this period. The accumulation rate of faecal sludge in the city of Yaoundé is of 0.356 l/hab/jour for septic tanks and of 0.21 l/hab/jour for pit latrines. It equally varies according to the luxury of the habitat. At the scale of the city, in 2018, 41% of single pits and 84% of septic tanks can be drained by trucks. The interval between two emptying is of 7 years for septic tanks and 10 years for pit latrines. Finally, the city of Yaoundé produces 2018, 283 175 m3 of faecal sludge per year, thus 51.7% can be drained by truck (146 514 m3), either 401 m3/jour. Only 52.4% are collected and (210 m3/jour) and sent-on the site of unloading of NOMAYOS. La présente étude porte sur le traitement sur l’assainissement dans la parcelle et la quantification des boues de vidange dans la ville de Yaoundé. La population de la ville de Yaoundé 3,1 millions d’habitants en 2018, atteindra 4,7 millions en 2030 avec un taux de croissance moyen annuel de 3,5%. La ville de Yaoundé est dominée par un système d’assainissement autonome qui est utilisé par 99% des ménages. Les eaux usées domestiques de la ville sont principalement traitées par des systèmes d'assainissement autonomes représentés par des fosses septiques, des latrines à fosse traditionnelles, des latrines à fosse améliorée ventilées, etc. Une enquête a été effectuée auprès de 1100 ménages de la ville de Yaoundé. Le choix de ménage à enquêter a été faite selon la méthode stratifiée. Il est passé en revue, les méthodes de quantification des boues de vidange utilisées existantes, afin de choisir une méthode adaptée au contexte de la ville de Yaoundé. Plusieurs critères sont analysés pour évaluer l’accès aux boues produites par les ménages : l’existence ou non de voirie, leur état de dégradation, les types de l’ouvrage d’assainissement, la position de l’ouvrage par rapport aux voies d’accès etc. pour la quantification des boues de vidange. Parmi les méthodes de quantification des boues de vidanges explorées, nous avons trouvé que « la méthode production spécifique » est plus adaptée au contexte. Mais cette méthode a été revue afin d’intégrer les éléments d’analyse sur l’accessibilité des ouvrages d’assainissement. L’application de la méthode retenue a été faite sur 120 ouvrages d’assainissement vidangés entre Juin et juillet 2018, choisis au hasard sur le potentiel de 600 ouvrages vidangés dans la ville de Yaoundé pendant cette période. Le taux d’accumulation des boues de vidange dans la ville de Yaoundé est de 0,356 l/hab/jour pour les fosses septiques et 0.21 l/hab/jour pour les latrines. Il varie également en fonction de standing de l’habitat. A l’échelle de la ville, 41% des fosses uniques et 84% des fosses septiques peuvent être vidangées par camion. L’intervalle entre deux vidanges est de 7 ans en moyenne pour les fosses septiques et 10 ans pour les latrines. Au final, la ville de Yaoundé produit en 2018, 283 175 m3 de boues de vidange par an, dont 51,7% peuvent être vidangés par camion (146 514 m3), soit 401 m3/jour. Seuls 52,4% de la quantité vidangeable, sont collectés en 2018 (210 m3/jour) et acheminés sur le site de dépotage de NOMAYOS.

Modeling and Simulation of Source Separation in Sanitation Systems for Reducing Emissions of Antimicrobial Resistances

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is identified by the World Health Organization (WHO) as one of the top ten threats to public health worldwide. In addition to public health, AMR also poses a major threat to food security and economic development. Current sanitation systems contribute to the emergence and spread of AMR and lack effective AMR mitigation measures. This study assesses source separation of blackwater as a mitigation measure against AMR. A source-separation-modified combined sanitation system with separate collection of blackwater and graywater is conceptually described. Measures taken at the source, such as the separate collection and discharge of material flows, were not considered so far on a load balance basis, i.e., they have not yet been evaluated for their effectiveness. The sanitation system described is compared with a combined system and a separate system regarding AMR emissions by means of simulation. AMR is represented in the simulation model by one proxy parameter each for antibiotics (sulfamethoxazole), antibiotic-resistant bacteria (extended-spectrum beta-lactamase E. Coli), and antibiotic resistance genes (blaTEM). The simulation results suggest that the source-separation-based sanitation system reduces emissions of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and antibiotic resistance genes into the aquatic environment by more than six logarithm steps compared to combined systems. Sulfamethoxazole emissions can be reduced by 75.5% by keeping blackwater separate from graywater and treating it sufficiently. In summary, sanitation systems incorporating source separation are, to date, among the most effective means of preventing the emission of AMR into the aquatic environment.