Episodic construction of the early Andean Cordillera unravelled by zircon petrochronology

The subduction of oceanic plates beneath continental lithosphere is responsible for continental growth and recycling of oceanic crust, promoting the formation of Cordilleran arcs. However, the processes that control the evolution of these Cordilleran orogenic belts, particularly during their early stages of formation, have not been fully investigated. Here we use a multi-proxy geochemical approach, based on zircon petrochronology and whole-rock analyses, to assess the early evolution of the Andes, one of the most remarkable continental arcs in the world. Our results show that magmatism in the early Andean Cordillera occurred over a period of ~120 million years with six distinct plutonic episodes between 215 and 94 Ma. Each episode is the result of a complex interplay between mantle, crust, slab and sediment contributions that can be traced using zircon chemistry. Overall, the magmatism evolved in response to changes in the tectonic configuration, from transtensional/extensional conditions (215–145 Ma) to a transtensional regime (138–94 Ma). We conclude that an external (tectonic) forcing model with mantle-derived inputs is responsible for the episodic plutonism in this extensional continental arc. This study highlights the use of zircon petrochronology in assessing the multimillion-year crustal scale evolution of Cordilleran arcs.

Illuminating a Contorted Slab with a Complex Intraslab Rupture Evolution during the 2021 Mw 7.3 East Cape, New Zealand Earthquake

The state-of-stress within subducting oceanic plates controls rupture processes of deep intraslab earthquakes. However, little is known about how the large-scale plate geometry and the stress regime relate to the physical nature of the deep-intraslab earthquakes. Here we find, by using globally and locally observed seismic records, that the moment magnitude 7.3 2021 East Cape, New Zealand earthquake was driven by a combination of shallow trench-normal extension and unexpectedly, deep trench-parallel compression. We find multiple rupture episodes comprising a mixture of reverse, strike-slip, and normal faulting. Reverse faulting due to the trench-parallel compression is unexpected given the apparent subduction direction, so we require a differential-buoyancy driven stress rotation which contorts the slab near the edge of the Hikurangi plateau. Our finding highlights that buoyant features in subducting plates may cause diverse rupture behavior of intraslab earthquakes due to the resulting heterogeneous stress state within slabs.

Extrusion of subducted crust explains the emplacement of far-travelled ophiolites

Continental subduction below oceanic plates and associated emplacement of ophiolite sheets remain enigmatic chapters in global plate tectonics. Numerous ophiolite belts on Earth exhibit a far-travelled ophiolite sheet that is separated from its oceanic root by tectonic windows exposing continental crust, which experienced subduction-related high pressure-low temperature metamorphism during obduction. However, the link between continental subduction-exhumation dynamics and far-travelled ophiolite emplacement remains poorly understood. Here we combine data collected from ophiolite belts worldwide with thermo-mechanical simulations of continental subduction dynamics to show the causal link between the extrusion of subducted continental crust and the emplacement of far-travelled ophiolites. Our results reveal that buoyancy-driven extrusion of subducted crust triggers necking and breaking of the overriding oceanic upper plate. The broken-off piece of oceanic lithosphere is then transported on top of the continent along a flat thrust segment and becomes a far-travelled ophiolite sheet separated from its root by the extruded continental crust. Our results indicate that the extrusion of the subducted continental crust and the emplacement of far-travelled ophiolite sheets are inseparable processes.

Similarities of the Scotia and Caribbean Plates: Implications for a common plate tectonic history?!

<p>The active volcanic arcs of the Scotia Plate and Caribbean Plate are two prominent features along the otherwise passive margins of the Atlantic Ocean, where subduction processes of oceanic crust is verifiable. Both arcs have been, and continue to be, important oceanic gateways during their formation. Trapped between the large continental plates of North- and South America, as well as Antarctica, the two significantly smaller oceanic plates show striking similarities in size, shape, plate margins and morphology, although formed at different times and locations during Earth’s history.</p><p>Structural analyses of the seafloor are based on bathymetric datasets by multibeam-echosounders (MBES), including data of the Global Multi Resolution Topography (GMRT), Alfred Wegener Institute (AWI), MARUM/Uni-Bremen, Geomar/Uni-Kiel, Uni-Hamburg and the British Antarctic Survey (BAS). Bathymetric data were processed to create maps of ocean floor morphology with resolution of 150-250 meters in accuracy. The Benthic Terrain Modeler 3.0 (BTM), amongst other GIS based tools, was utilized to analyse the geomorphometry of both plates. Furthermore, we used the bathymetric datasets for three-dimensional modelling of the seafloor to examine large-scale-structures in more detail.</p><p>The modelling of ship-based bathymetric datasets, in combination with the GEBCO 2014 global 30 arc-second interval grid, included in the GMRT bathymetric database, delivered detailed bathymetric maps of the study area. With the help of the fine- and broad-scale bathymetric position index (BPI), comparable to the topographic position index (Weiss, 2001), we present the first detailed interpretation of combined bathymetric datasets of the Scotia Sea, including the entire Scotia Plate and adjacent areas, such as the East Scotia Plate. We identified typical morphological features of the abyss, based on the determination of steep and broad slopes, ridges, boulders, flat plains or flat ridge tops and depressions in various scales. Additional data analyses of gravimetric and magnetic properties of the crust should help to understand the plate tectonic history of both areas in more detail.</p><p><br>References: <br>Ryan, W. B. F; Carbotte, S.M.; Coplan, J.; O'Hara, S.; Melkonian, A.; Arko, R.; Weissel, R.A.; Ferrini, V.; Goodwillie, A.; Nitsche, F.; Bonczkowski, J. and Zemsky, R. (2009): Global Multi-Resolution Topography (GMRT) synthesis data set, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 10, Q03014, doi:10.1029/2008GC002332.</p><p>Walbridge, S.; Slocum, N.; Pobuda, M.; Wright, D.J. (2018): Unified Geomorphological Analysis Workflows with Benthic Terrain Modeler. Geosciences 2018, 8, 94. doi: 10.3390/geosciences8030094</p><p>Weiss, A. D. (2001): Topographic Positions and Landforms Analysis (Conference Poster). Proceedings of the 21st Annual ESRI User Conference. San Diego, CA, July 9-13.</p>

The role of anisotropy in oceanic lithosphere from 'cradle to grave'

<p>The oceanic crust and lithosphere are commonly treated as geologically simple, their fundamental properties encapsulated by the 1D model of layered oceanic crust and the plate-cooling model of lithospheric thickness we learnt as undergraduates. The question of directionality or anisotropy in the behaviour and deeper structure of oceanic plates is relatively rarely considered, despite formation processes, such as rifting and seafloor spreading, and surface topography, such as abyssal hills, that are clearly highly anisotropic. In this presentation, we bring together evidence from a variety of sources from regional studies of rifting and volcanism to numerical modelling and global analyses of bathymetry and gravity data. We show how anisotropy is imprinted into the oceanic lithosphere at formation, both in the early rifting phases and at mature spreading centres, and how that anisotropic signature persists for many millions of years, potentially strengthened by preferential alignment of mineral phases as the moving plates cool and thicken. We then consider how this directionality impacts later deformation, volcanism, and eventually subduction.</p>

Vertical slab tearing controlled by the rheology of subducting oceanic plates

<p>Vertical tearing of subducting oceanic slabs plays an important role in the subduction dynamic worldwide, accommodating slabs motion and segmentation in subduction zones. In previous studies, several models have been proposed for the origin of vertical slab tearing – they were related to variations in the slab age, rollback rate, buoyancy, moving direction, etc. However, the physical mechanism of vertical slab tearing remains elusive. Here, we propose a new model that stable vertical tearing of subducting oceanic slabs can be generated by inversion of transform margins and controlled by the strain-weakening rheology of subducting oceanic plates that facilitate out of plane (mode-III) shear deformation inside subducting slabs. Through 3D thermo-mechanical numerical modeling, we systematically investigate the effects of transform margins length and the rheology of subducting oceanic plates on the vertical slab tearing. Numerical results show that (1) interaction between two neighboring subducting slabs decreases as the transform margins length and the resulting trench offset increase. Once the offset reaches the critical offset, sustained vertical slab tearing occurs spontaneously. (2) Strain weakening parameters are crucial in the lithospheric deformation. An intense strain weakening, with a strong and rapid lowering of internal friction coefficient, greatly facilitates the initial slabs tear and makes it sustained. (3) Slab age is also an important factor in vertical slab tearing. A longer critical offset is required for the older oceanic lithosphere. (4) The vertical tear and resulting slab segmentation can operate as a self-sustained dynamical process (i.e., can be defined as dynamical instability of oblique subduction that gives preference to segmented slabs). Once a vertical tear is formed, it can propagate steadily for a long time.</p>

Extrusion of subducted crust explains the emplacement of far-travelled ophiolites

<p>Continental subduction below oceanic plates and associated emplacement of ophiolite sheets remain enigmatic chapters in global plate tectonics. Numerous ophiolite belts on Earth exhibit a far-travelled ophiolite sheet that is separated from its oceanic root by tectonic windows exposing continental crust, which experienced subduction-related high pressure-low temperature (HP-LT) metamorphism during obduction. However, the link between continental subduction-exhumation dynamics and far-travelled ophiolite emplacement remains poorly understood. We combine data collected from ophiolite belts worldwide with thermo-mechanical simulations of continental subduction dynamics to show the causal link between the extrusion of subducted continental crust and the emplacement of far-travelled ophiolite sheets. Our results reveal that buoyancy-driven extrusion of subducted crust triggers necking and breaking of the overriding oceanic upper plate. The broken-off piece of oceanic lithosphere is then transported on top of the continent along a flat thrust segment and becomes a far-travelled ophiolite sheet separated from its root by the extruded continental crust. Our results indicate that the extrusion of the subducted continental crust and the emplacement of far-travelled ophiolite sheets are inseparable processes.</p>

Conductive Channels in the Deep Oceanic Lithosphere Could Consist of Garnet Pyroxenites at the Fossilized Lithosphere–Asthenosphere Boundary

Magnetotelluric (MT) surveys have identified anisotropic conductive anomalies in the mantle of the Cocos and Nazca oceanic plates, respectively, offshore Nicaragua and in the eastern neighborhood of the East Pacific Rise (EPR). Both the origin and nature of these anomalies are controversial as well as their role in plate tectonics. The high electrical conductivity has been hypothesized to originate from partial melting and melt pooling at the lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary (LAB). The anisotropic nature of the anomaly likely highlights high-conductivity channels in the spreading direction, which could be further interpreted as the persistence of a stable liquid silicate throughout the whole oceanic cycle, on which the lithospheric plates would slide by shearing. However, considering minor hydration, some mantle minerals can be as conductive as silicate melts. Here I show that the observed electrical anomaly offshore Nicaragua does not correlate with the LAB but instead with the top of the garnet stability field and that garnet networks suffice to explain the reported conductivity values. I further propose that this anomaly actually corresponds to the fossilized trace of the early-stage LAB that formed near the EPR about 23 million years ago. Melt-bearing channels and/or pyroxenite underplating at the bottom of the young Cocos plate would transform into garnet-rich pyroxenites with decreasing temperature, forming solid-state high-conductivity channels between 40 and 65 km depth (1.25–1.9 GPa, 1000–1100 °C), consistently with experimental petrology.