Are Women Less Likely to Ask than Men Partly Because They Work Fewer Hours? A Commentary on Artz et al. (2018)

A long debate in negotiation research concerns the question of whether gender differences in the propensity to initiate negotiations, in behaviors shown during negotiations, and in negotiation performance actually exist. Whereas past negotiation research suggested that women are less likely to initiate negotiations than men, a recent study by Artz et al. (2018) seems to suggest that women are as likely as men to “ask” for higher pay. However, this finding by Artz et al. (2018) was obtained once the number of weekly hours worked was added as a covariate in the statistical analysis. Following extant work, we suggest that the number of weekly hours worked could be—and, from a theoretical stand-point, perhaps should be—considered a mediator of gender differences. Conducting a Monte Carlo analysis based on the results and statistics provided by Artz et al. (2018) also yielded empirical evidence suggesting that weekly hours could be a mediator. Thus, women may be less likely than men to ask for higher pay, among other potential reasons, because they work fewer weekly hours. Based on this alternative conceptualization of the role of weekly hours, our commentary has theoretical implications for the understanding of gender differences in the propensity to initiate negotiations and practical implications for the effective reduction of gender inequalities.

Optimizing bid search in large outcome spaces for automated multi-issue negotiations using meta-heuristic methods

Bidding strategy is an important part of a negotiation strategy in automated multi-issue negotiations. In order to present good offers, which help maximize the agent’s utility, we need to search the outcome space and find appropriate bids. Bid search can become challenging in large outcome spaces with more than ten thousands of possible bids. The traditional search methods such as exhaustive or binary search are not efficient enough to find the right bids in a large space. This is mostly due to the high number of issues, high number of possible values for each issue, and increased time complexity of usual search methods. In this paper, we investigate the potential of using meta-heuristic methods for optimizing bid search in large outcome spaces. We apply some of the most popular meta-heuristic algorithms for bid search in bidding strategy of baseline negotiating agents and evaluate their impacts on negotiation performance in different negotiation domains. The evaluation results obtained through comprehensive experiments show how meta-heuristic algorithms can help improve bid search capability and consequently negotiation performance of the agents on different performance criteria. In addition, we show which search algorithm is most suitable for improving any particular performance criterion.

Individual differences in negotiation: A relational process model

Intuition suggests that individual differences should play an important role in negotiation performance, and yet empirical results have been relatively weak. Because negotiations are inherently dyadic, the dyad needs to feature prominently in theorizing. In expanding the traditional treatment of individual differences to two systematically interconnected parties, a relational process model (RPM) emerges. The RPM illustrates how the individual differences of both negotiators spark complex behavioral dynamics through five distinct theoretical mechanisms. Individuals (a) select each other, (b) set expectancies for each other, (c) serve as behavioral triggers and affordances for each other, (d) reciprocate and complement each other’s behaviors, and (e) vary in their responses to identical behaviors. It also directs attention to new classes and dimensions of individual difference factors. The RPM helps explain why past research has been highly conservative. A more complete picture needs to incorporate the complex interplay starting with parties’ individual differences.

INNOVATIVE ENTREPRENEURS AND THEIR NEGOTIATION BEHAVIOURS IN LAUNCHING NEW PRODUCTS

Purpose: This study investigates the impact of the negotiation behaviours by Vietnamese innovative-entrepreneurs on negotiation outcomes. The focus emphasises face-to-face negotiation sessions between innovative entrepreneurs and their corporate customers as they promote new services and products that either fulfill unmet market demands or achieve significant improvements in comparison to existing products or services. Methodology: This paper employed a qualitative research method to distill the entrepreneurial negotiation behaviours and their impacts on negotiation performance. A series of semi-structured interviews were conducted individually with 14 Vietnamese innovative-entrepreneurs, from five industries including technology, manufacturing, agriculture, medical, and education. To ensure the entrepreneurs' fall under the classification of innovative-entrepreneurs. The participating entrepreneurs were selected Entrepreneurship-Incubator, Vietnam-Department-of-Business-Registration-Management, and Business-Startup-Support-Centre. Main Findings: The findings showed that the negotiated-terms, the self-expression of the parties, the negotiation process, and the relationship developed were found to be significant in measuring negotiation performance. Negotiation behaviours, including concern about the personal outcome; concern about others’ outcomes; building relationships; and, emotional expression, were found as having a positive impact on negotiation performance. In contrast, risk-taking negatively affected negotiation outcomes. Applications: Based on the aforementioned findings, a proposed negotiation-framework of an innovative-entrepreneur in the product launching stage is being developed. Novelty/Originality of this study: This study brings another view on measuring negotiation performance by applying psychological negotiation outcome elements rather than relying on objective elements only. The significance of each psychological negotiation outcome element is also ordered. The unique advantages and challenges of the launching stage of an innovative entrepreneur are also explored to provide in-depth entrepreneurial knowledge.

Improvement on Curve Negotiation Performance of Suspended Monorail Vehicle Considering Flexible Guideway

This work presents the investigation and improvement on curve negotiation performance of suspended monorail vehicle considering a flexible guideway. First, a spatial train–guideway interaction model of suspended monorail system (SMS) is established based on the secondary development of ANSYS software. Then, the dynamic analysis of the train over the flexible curved guideway is conducted, and the curve negotiation performance of the vehicle and the guideway vibration feature are revealed. Subsequently, several crucial design parameters that significantly influence the curve negotiation performance of the vehicle are found, and their influences on the train–guideway dynamic responses are systematically investigated. Finally, by comprehensively considering the dynamic indexes of the vehicle–guideway system, the optimal ranges of these crucial design parameters are obtained. Results show that decreasing the radial stiffness of guiding tyre can effectively reduce the lateral vibration levels of vehicle and guideway, but it would increase the lateral displacements of the bogie and hanging beam; and the radial stiffness is finally suggested to be around 1[Formula: see text]kN/mm by comprehensively considering all dynamic indexes. Increasing the initial compression displacement of guiding tyre can well limit the lateral displacements of the bogie and the hanging beam, thus enhancing the train running safety; however, it would intensify the vehicle-guideway lateral vibration level; especially, the optimal initial compression displacement of guiding tyre is related to its radial stiffness characteristics. To ensure a good curve negotiation performance of vehicle and guideway vibration level, the stiffness of the anti-roll torsion bar and the initial gradient angle of the installed trapezoid four-link suspended device are suggested to be 1.0[Formula: see text]MNm/rad and 65–[Formula: see text], respectively.

Commentary - Women Ask Less Often Than Men Partly Because They Work Fewer Hours (Revised Manuscript)

A long debate in negotiation research concerns the question of whether gender differences in the propensity to initiate negotiations, in behaviors shown during negotiations, and in negotiation performance actually exist. Whereas past negotiation research suggested that women are less likely to initiate negotiations than men, a recent study by Artz et al. (2018) seems to suggest that women are as likely as men to “ask” for higher pay. However, this finding by Artz et al. (2018) was obtained once the number of weekly hours worked was added as a covariate in the statistical analysis. Following extant work, we suggest that the number of weekly hours worked could be—and, from a theoretical standpoint, perhaps should be—considered a mediator of gender differences. Conducting a Monte Carlo analysis based on the results and statistics provided by Artz et al. (2018) also yielded empirical evidence suggesting that weekly hours could be a mediator. Thus, women may be less likely than men to ask for higher pay, among other potential reasons, because they work fewer weekly hours. Based on this alternative conceptualization of the role of weekly hours, our commentary has theoretical implications for the understanding of gender differences in the propensity to initiate negotiations and practical implications for the effective reduction of gender inequalities.

Implicit and Explicit Gender Stereotypes at the Bargaining Table: Male Counterparts’ Stereotypes Predict Women’s Lower Performance in Dyadic Face-to-Face Negotiations

In every major occupational group and at every level of educational attainment, U.S. women earn less than men (Carnevale et al. 2018). Besides a component explained by objective factors (e.g., hours worked, occupation, experience), the gender wage gap includes a large component unexplained by objective factors. This latter component may be attributed, at least in part, to factors such as gender stereotyping and discrimination. In one study, we focus specifically on negotiation partners’ gender stereotypes by investigating mock face-to-face negotiations around salary and benefits mimicking real world job settings. We specifically investigated whether U.S. women’s (n = 83) negotiation performance was predicted by their negotiation counterparts’ implicit and explicit gender stereotypes and whether these effects depended on the gender of the negotiation counterpart and their randomly assigned power role in the negotiation (recruiter vs. candidate). Overall, our findings suggest that regardless of women’s power role in negotiations, women’s lower performance is predicted by their male counterparts’ higher implicit stereotypes. For female recruiters, this effect is further qualified by their male counterparts’ explicit stereotypes. Our discussion explores how temporary power roles contribute to the expression of implicit and explicit gender stereotypes in negotiations. We also discuss practice implications for reducing negative effects of stereotypes on women’s negotiation performance.