A study of intermediate water circulation in the Strait of Georgia using tracer-based, Eulerian, and Lagrangian methods

The intermediate circulation of the Strait of Georgia, British Columbia, Canada, plays a key role in dispersing contaminants throughout the Salish Sea, yet little is known about its dynamics. Here, we use hydrographic observations and hindcast fields from a regional 3D model to approach the intermediate circulation from three perspectives. Firstly, we derive and model a “seasonality” tracer from temperature observations to age the water, estimate mixing, and infer circulation. Secondly, we analyze modeled velocity fields to create mean current maps and examine the advective and diffusive components of the mean flow field. Lastly, we calculate Lagrangian trajectories to derive Transit Time Distributions and Lagrangian statistics. In combination, these analyses provide an overview of the mean intermediate circulation that can be summarized as follows: subducting water in Haro Strait ventilates the intermediate water primarily via an up-strait boundary current that flows along the eastern shores of the southernmost basin in 1–2 months. This inflowing water is either incorporated into the interior of the basin, recirculated southwards, or transported into the northernmost basin, mixing steadily with adjacent water masses during its transit. A second, shallower ventilating jet emanates southwards from Discovery Passage, locally modifying the Haro Strait inflow signal. Outside of these well-defined advective features, diffusive transport dominates in the majority of the region. The intermediate renewal signal fully ventilates the region in 100–140 days, which serves as a benchmark for contaminant dispersal timescale estimates.

Increased glacier runoff enhances the penetration of warm Atlantic water into a large Greenland fjord

The retreat and acceleration of Greenland's marine-terminating outlet glaciers have been linked to ocean warming. However the mechanisms which control the transmission of this warming along fjords towards the glaciers remain poorly understood. The aim of this paper is to elucidate observed changes in water properties in Kangerdlugssuaq Fjord (KF), East Greenland using the Bergen Ocean Model (BOM). Model outputs are compared with observed potential temperature, salinity and velocity data to determine the principal controls on heat transport within KF and to estimate resulting submarine ice front melt rates of Kangerdlugssuaq Glacier (KG). The BOM includes wind, tidal and glacier runoff forcing and is able to replicate observed temperature and salinity profiles. Model results describe a robust four-layer estuarine flow, consisting of two distinct circulations. The shallow circulation (0–~ 60 m) is forced by surface wind stress and to a lesser extent supraglacial runoff, while the intermediate circulation (~ 60–500 m) is driven by runoff discharged into the fjord subglacially. Atlantic Water (AW) and warm Polar Surface Water (PSWw) are drawn into the fjord by the intermediate and shallow circulation cells respectively, in a pattern consistent with observations, and AW reaches KG over a single summer. Along-fjord heat transport towards KG increases significantly with both glacier runoff and coastal water temperature. A doubling of glacier runoff produces a 29% (48%) amplification of mean annual (summer) heat transport towards the KG terminus, increasing estimated mean annual (summer) submarine melt rates from 211 to 273 (842 to 1244) m yr–1. In contrast, heat transport towards KG in the surface ~ 60 m of the fjord decreases with rising glacier runoff because the enhanced down-fjord component of the intermediate circulation interferes with the up-fjord part of the shallow circulation. Thus, as ice sheet runoff increases, KG's dynamic response to oceanic forcing will likely be driven primarily by enhanced submarine ice front melting and consequent undercutting rather than through diminished buttressing from seasonal sea ice and ice mélange. Our model shows, in agreement with observations, that maximum submarine melt rates occur when AW and PSWw are present at the fjord mouth and, crucially, glacier runoff is also high. Rising ice sheet runoff therefore increases the sensitivity of KG (and other Greenland marine-terminating glaciers) to ocean warming.

Mediterranean intermediate circulation estimated from Argo data in 2003–2010

Data from 38 Argo profiling floats are used to describe the intermediate Mediterranean currents for the period October 2003–January 2010. These floats were programmed to execute 5-day cycles, to drift at a neutral parking depth of 350 m and measure temperature and salinity profiles from either 700 or 2000 m up to the surface. At the end of each cycle the floats remained at the sea surface for about 6 h, enough time to be localised and transmit the data to the Argos satellite system. The Argos positions were used to determine the float surface and intermediate displacements. At the surface, the float motion was approximated by a linear displacement and inertial motion. Intermediate velocities estimates were used to investigate the Mediterranean circulation at 350 m, to compute the pseudo-Eulerian statistics and to study the influence of bathymetry on the intermediate currents. Maximum speeds, as large as 33 cm/s, were found northeast of the Balearic Islands (western basin) and in the Ierapetra eddy (eastern basin). Typical speeds in the main along-slope currents (Liguro-Provençal-Catalan, Algerian and Libyo-Egyptian Currents) were ~20 cm/s. In the central and western part of Mediterranean basin, the pseudo-Eulerian statistics show typical intermediate circulation pathways which can be related to the motion of Levantine Intermediate Water. In general our results agree with the qualitative intermediate circulation schemes proposed in the literature, except in the southern Ionian where we found westward-flowing intermediate currents. Fluctuating currents appeared to be usually larger than the mean flow. Intermediate currents were found to be essentially parallel to the isobaths over most of the areas characterized by strong bathymetry gradients, in particular, in the vicinity of the continental slopes.

Implementation of position assimilation for ARGO floats in a realistic Mediterranean Sea OPA model and twin experiment testing

In this paper, a Lagrangian assimilation method is presented and implemented in a realistic OPA OGCM with the goal of providing an assessment of the assimilation of realistic Argo float position data. We focus on an application in the Mediterranean Sea, where in the framework of the MFSTEP project an array of Argo floats have been deployed with parking depth at 350 m and sampling interval of 5 days. In order to quantitatively test the method, the "twin experiment" approach is followed and synthetic trajectories are considered. The method is first tested using "perfect" data, i.e. without shear drift errors and with relatively high coverage. Results show that the assimilation is effective, correcting the velocity field at the parking depth, as well as the velocity profiles and the geostrophically adjusted mass field. We then consider the impact of realistic datasets, which are spatially sparse and characterized by shear drift errors. Such data provide a limited global correction of the model state, but they efficiently act on the location, intensity and shape of the described mesoscale structures of the intermediate circulation.

Implementation of position assimilation for ARGO floats in a realistic Mediterranean Sea OPA model and twin experiment testing

In this paper, a Lagrangian assimilation method is presented and implemented in a realistic OPA OGCM with the goal of providing an assessment of the assimilation of realistic Argo float position data. We focus on an application in the Mediterranean Sea, where in the framework of the MFSTEP project an array of Argo floats have been deployed with parking depth at 350 m and sampling interval of 5 days. In order to quantitatively test the method, the ''twin experiment'' approach is followed and synthetic trajectories are considered. The method is first tested using ''perfect'' data, i.e. without shear drift errors and with relatively high coverage. Results show that the assimilation is effective, correcting the velocity field at the parking depth, as well as the velocity profiles and the geostrophically adjusted mass field. We then consider the impact of realistic datasets, which are spatially sparse and characterized by shear drift errors. Such data provide a limited global correction of the model state, but they efficiently act on the location, intensity and shape of the described mesoscale structures of the intermediate circulation.