Echolocating toothed whales use ultra-fast echo-kinetic responses to track evasive prey

Visual predators rely on fast-acting optokinetic responses to track and capture agile prey. Most toothed whales, however, rely on echolocation for hunting and have converged on biosonar clicking rates reaching 500/s during prey pursuits. If echoes are processed on a click-by-click basis, as assumed, neural responses 100× faster than those in vision are required to keep pace with this information flow. Using high-resolution biologging of wild predator-prey interactions, we show that toothed whales adjust clicking rates to track prey movement within 50–200 ms of prey escape responses. Hypothesising that these stereotyped biosonar adjustments are elicited by sudden prey accelerations, we measured echo-kinetic responses from trained harbour porpoises to a moving target and found similar latencies. High biosonar sampling rates are, therefore, not supported by extreme speeds of neural processing and muscular responses. Instead, the neurokinetic response times in echolocation are similar to those of tracking responses in vision, suggesting a common neural underpinning.

DIEL AND INTER-SEASONAL DYNAMICS OF SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF FISH IN WATER AREA OF WINTERING RIVERBED DEPRESSION

To study the dynamics of the spatial distribution of fish under ice cover the research was carried out in the water area of the riverbed depression located in the lower reaches of the Irtysh River (Western Siberia, Tyumen region). The research was conducted by using the hydroacoustic method based on a computerized hydroacoustic software-hardware complex. It was found that, in the diurnal aspect, throughout the entire observation period (December - April), the number of fish in the riverbed increases during the dark period of the day, and during the light period it decreases. The dominant groups of fish change with the change of the period of the day: December - cyprinids prevail in the dark period of the day, in March and April - in the light period of the day, the rest of the time the group of percids predominated. With an increase in water temperature from December to April from 3.7 to 6.5 °C, it was noted that the density of fish decreases from 184 to 8 sp/hect. in the daytime and from 2157 to 91 sp/hect. at night (dark period), respectively. Fish explore the horizons of the water column of the riverbed depression during the day and night from the surface to the bottom with the highest density indicators near the surface, except - the daytime in December. With increasing density of fish at nightfall at the same time, there was an increase used water area of riverbed depression. In the vertical aspect, cyprinids avoid predators (pike, in-connu, burbot) in the diurnal dynamics; the distribution of cyprinids has a significant negative cor-relation with the distribution of the second group of fish. Thus, the features of the vertical and hori-zontal distribution of fish in the diurnal dynamics throughout the entire observation period are the strategy of their survival: for prey - escape from predators, for predators - search for food objects

Echolocating whales use ultra-fast echo-kinetic responses to track evasive prey.

Visual predators rely on fast-acting optokinetic reflexes to track and capture agile prey. Most toothed whales, however, rely on echolocation for hunting and have converged on biosonar clicking rates reaching 500/s during prey pursuits. If echoes are processed on a click-by-click basis, as assumed, neural responses 100x faster than those in vision are required to keep pace with this information flow. Using high-resolution bio-logging of wild predator-prey interactions we show that toothed whales adjust clicking rates to track prey movement within 50-200ms of prey escape responses. Hypothesising that these stereotyped biosonar adjustments are elicited by sudden prey accelerations, we measured echo-kinetic responses from trained harbour porpoises to a moving target and found similar latencies. High biosonar sampling rates are, therefore, not supported by extreme speeds of neural processing and muscular responses. Instead, the neuro-kinetic response times in echolocation are similar to those of tracking reflexes in vision, suggesting a common neural underpinning.

Assessing the Binding of Venoms from Aquatic Elapids to the Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor Orthosteric Site of Different Prey Models

The evolution of an aquatic lifestyle from land dwelling venomous elapids is a radical ecological modification, bringing about many evolutionary changes from morphology to diet. Diet is an important ecological facet which can play a key role in regulating functional traits such as venom composition and prey-specific targeting of venom. In addition to predating upon novel prey (e.g., fish, fish eggs and invertebrates), the venoms of aquatic elapids also face the challenge of increased prey-escape potential in the aquatic environment. Thus, despite the independent radiation into an aquatic niche on four separate occasions, the venoms of aquatic elapids are evolving under convergent selection pressures. Utilising a biolayer interferometry binding assay, this study set out to elucidate whether crude venoms from representative aquatic elapids were target-specific to the orthosteric site of postsynaptic nicotinic acetylcholine receptor mimotopes of fish compared to other terrestrial prey types. Representatives of the four aquatic lineages were: aquatic coral snakes representative was Micrurus surinamensis;, sea kraits representative was Laticauda colubrina; sea snakes representatives were two Aipysurus spp. and eight Hydrophis spp; and water cobras representative was Naja annulata. No prey-specific differences in crude venom binding were observed from any species tested, except for Aipysurus laevis, which showed slight evidence of prey-potency differences. For Hydrophis caerulescens, H. peronii, H. schistosus and M. surinamensis, there was a lack of binding to the orthosteric site of any target lineage. Subsequent testing on the in vitro chick-biventer cervicis muscle preparation suggested that, while the venoms of these species bound postsynaptically, they bound to allosteric sites rather than orthosteric. Allosteric binding is potentially a weaker but faster-acting form of neurotoxicity and we hypothesise that the switch to allosteric binding is likely due to selection pressures related to prey-escape potential. This research has potentially opened up the possibility of a new functional class of toxins which have never been assessed previously while shedding light on the selection pressures shaping venom evolution.

Elastic recoil action amplifies jaw closing speed in an aquatic feeding salamander

Tendon springs often influence locomotion by amplifying the speed and power of limb joint rotation. However, less is known about elastic recoil action in feeding systems, particularly for small aquatic animals. Here, we ask if elastic recoil amplifies the speed of gape closing during aquatic food processing in the Axolotl ( Ambystoma mexicanum ). We measure activation of the adductor mandibulae externus via electromyography and strain of the jaw adductor muscle–tendon unit (MTU), and gape kinematics via fluoromicrometry. The muscle is pre-activated coincident with gape opening, which causes MTU stretch. Activation lasts significantly shorter for fish than cricket processing, and muscle shortening during MTU lengthening yields significantly greater elastic strain for cricket processing. The speed of MTU shortening, which dictates the speed of gape closing is 2.5–4.4 times greater than the speed of the initial shortening of the muscle fascicles for fish and cricket gape cycles, respectively. These data demonstrate a clear role for elastic recoil, which may be unexpected for a MTU in a feeding system of a small, aquatic animal. Amplification of jaw-closing speed resulting from elastic recoil likely confers ecological advantages in reducing prey escape risks during food processing in a dense and viscous fluid environment.

Biomechanical costs and benefits of sit-and-wait foraging traps

Traps are rarely used by animals, despite the plausible benefits of broadening the number and diversity of prey that sit-and-wait foragers might be able to capture. The most well-known trap building sit-and-wait foragers are among the invertebrates, i.e. antlions, wormlions, glow worms, caddisflies, and spiders. A plausible hypothesis for the paucity of trap building by other animals is that biomechanical limitations render them inefficient or ineffective at catching sufficient prey. Here I examined the literature to make a valued judgement about the validity of this hypothesis. It appears that antlion and wormlion pit traps cannot catch and retain the largest prey they might expect to encounter. Arachnacampa glowworm traps are functionally efficient, facilitated by the animal’s bioluminescence. Nevertheless they only function in very moist or humid conditions. Caddisfly traps rely on flowing water to be able to capture their prey. Spiders are exceptional in developing a wide range of prey trapping strategies, from webs with dry adhesives, to sticky orb webs, to modified orb webs, e.g. elongated “ladder” webs, to webs with additional structures, and web aggregations. Some spiders have even redesigned their webs to minimize the high prey escape rates associated with web two dimensionality. These webs nevertheless are constructed and used at specific costs. While hard data across all of the invertebrate predators is lacking, there seems to be credence in the hypothesis that the biomechanical limitations placed on trap functionality can explain their limited use among animals.

Varanid Lizard Venoms Disrupt the Clotting Ability of Human Fibrinogen through Destructive Cleavage

The functional activities of Anguimorpha lizard venoms have received less attention compared to serpent lineages. Bite victims of varanid lizards often report persistent bleeding exceeding that expected for the mechanical damage of the bite. Research to date has identified the blockage of platelet aggregation as one bleeding-inducing activity, and destructive cleavage of fibrinogen as another. However, the ability of the venoms to prevent clot formation has not been directly investigated. Using a thromboelastograph (TEG5000), clot strength was measured after incubating human fibrinogen with Heloderma and Varanus lizard venoms. Clot strengths were found to be highly variable, with the most potent effects produced by incubation with Varanus venoms from the Odatria and Euprepriosaurus clades. The most fibrinogenolytically active venoms belonged to arboreal species and therefore prey escape potential is likely a strong evolutionary selection pressure. The results are also consistent with reports of profusive bleeding from bites from other notably fibrinogenolytic species, such as V. giganteus. Our results provide evidence in favour of the predatory role of venom in varanid lizards, thus shedding light on the evolution of venom in reptiles and revealing potential new sources of bioactive molecules useful as lead compounds in drug design and development.

Size and contrast increase the divertive effect of eyespots

Recent studies have shown that some eyespots of prey divert the strikes of predators, increasing the likelihood of prey escape. However, little is known about what makes eyespots effective divertive (deflective) prey marks. The size of eyespots varies much both between and even within taxa. Yet, whether size is important for the divertive function of eyespots is unknown. Furthermore, eyespots have often been described as highly contrasting, but the effects of contrast on the divertive function of eyespots has never been tested experimentally. Using artificial prey and the three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) as a model for predator cognition and behavior, we tested the importance of size as well as internal contrast for the divertive effect of eyespots. We independently increased the internal contrast and size of eyespots and found that both increased the divertive effect. The effect of size was significant over all 4 subsequent prey presentations, whereas the effect of contrast decreased after the initial presentations. These results suggest that the size and contrast of divertive marks are probably shaped by selection imposed by predation. We also discuss the involvement of predation in the seasonal and ontogenic plasticity of eyespots found in some taxa.

Coagulotoxicity of Bothrops (Lancehead Pit-Vipers) Venoms from Brazil: Differential Biochemistry and Antivenom Efficacy Resulting from Prey-Driven Venom Variation

Lancehead pit-vipers (Bothrops genus) are an extremely diverse and medically important group responsible for the greatest number of snakebite envenomations and deaths in South America. Bothrops atrox (common lancehead), responsible for majority of snakebites and related deaths within the Brazilian Amazon, is a highly adaptable and widely distributed species, whose venom variability has been related to several factors, including geographical distribution and habitat type. This study examined venoms from four B. atrox populations (Belterra and Santarém, PA; Pres. Figueiredo, AM and São Bento, MA), and two additional Bothrops species (B. jararaca and B. neuwiedi) from Southeastern region for their coagulotoxic effects upon different plasmas (human, amphibian, and avian). The results revealed inter– and intraspecific variations in coagulotoxicity, including distinct activities between the three plasmas, with variations in the latter two linked to ecological niche occupied by the snakes. Also examined were the correlated biochemical mechanisms of venom action. Significant variation in the relative reliance upon the cofactors calcium and phospholipid were revealed, and the relative dependency did not significantly correlate with potency. Relative levels of Factor X or prothrombin activating toxins correlated with prey type and prey escape potential. The antivenom was shown to perform better in neutralising prothrombin activation activity than neutralising Factor X activation activity. Thus, the data reveal new information regarding the evolutionary selection pressures shaping snake venom evolution, while also having significant implications for the treatment of the envenomed patient. These results are, therefore, an intersection between evolutionary biology and clinical medicine.