Higher-order learning

We design a novel experiment to study how subjects update their beliefs about the beliefs of others. Three players receive sequential signals about an unknown state of the world. Player 1 reports her beliefs about the state; Player 2 simultaneously reports her beliefs about the beliefs of Player 1; Player 3 simultaneously reports her beliefs about the beliefs of Player 2. We say that beliefs exhibit higher-order learning if the beliefs of Player k about the beliefs of Player $$k-1$$ k - 1 become more accurate as more signals are observed. We find that some of the predicted dynamics of higher-order beliefs are reflected in the data; in particular, higher-order beliefs are updated more slowly with private than public information. However, higher-order learning fails even after a large number of signals is observed. We argue that this result is driven by base-rate neglect, heterogeneity in updating processes, and subjects’ failure to correctly take learning rules of others into account.

Implicitly Learned Higher Order Associations Differentiates Recent and Remote Retrieval of Temporal Order Memory

Memory of an ordered sequence of distinct events requires encoding the temporal order as well as the intervals that separates these events. In this study, using order place association task where the animal learns to associate the location of the food pellet to the order of entry into the event arena, we probe the nature of temporal order memory in mice. In our task, individual trials, become distinct events, as the animal is trained to form unique association between entry order and a correct location. The inter-trial intervals (> 30 mins) are chosen deliberately to minimise the working memory contributions. We develop this paradigm initially using 4 order place associates and later extend it to 5 paired associates. Our results show that animals not only acquire these explicit (entry order to place) associations but also higher order associations that can only be inferred implicitly from the temporal order of these events. As an indicator of such higher order learning during the probe trail the mice exhibit predominantly prospective errors that declines proportionally with temporal distance. On the other hand, prior to acquiring the sequence the retrospective errors are dominant. Additionally, we also tested the nature of such acquisitions when temporal order CS is presented along with flavour as a compound stimulus comprising of order and flavour both simultaneously being paired with location. Results from these experiments indicate that the animal learns both order-place and flavour-place associations. Comparing with pure order place training, we find that the additional flavour in compound training did not interfere with the ability of the animals to acquire the order place associations. When tested remotely, pure order place associations could be retrieved only after a reminder training. Further higher order associations representing the temporal relationship between the events is markedly absent in the remote time.

A Systematic Review of Augmented Reality Applications in Language Learning

Augmented reality (AR) is one of the emerging technologies gradually venturing into the education field. Although AR is strongly linked to subjects related to Science, Mathematics, and Technology in schools and tertiary education, there is no mention of AR in non-technical subjects, such as language. Thus, this study aims to discover the AR application trends in language learning and the language skills prevalent in AR usage. In this systematic literature review, AR-related research in language learning began in 2016 and has continued to be on the rise. Furthermore, the preferred language skills used with AR technology required lower cognitive levels, such as identifying words, understanding meanings, and spelling, and pronouncing words. Based on the gap indicating the rare usage of AR for more complex and critical language skills, such as reading and writing, this study hopes to enlighten the researchers, educators, and application developers to focus on developing AR applications for languages other than English, incorporate higher-order learning outcomes in the language learning activities, and pursue qualitative investigations.

039 Sleep Preferentially Supports Problem-Solving Skills via Greater Functional Connectivity Between the Caudate and Cerebral Cortex

Introduction Sleep consolidates memory, including newly acquired procedural skills. One putative systems-level mechanism for this function of sleep is via sleep-dependent strengthening of functional connectivity between the putamen and the cortico-hippocampal-striatal-cerebellar network, which supports procedural motor skills. For procedural motor skills that also require problem solving and rule-learning, sleep preferentially benefits the cognitively complex aspects over the motor skills required to execute the solution itself. The caudate is implicated in higher-order cognitive components of skill learning, which include error monitoring and automizing new information. In the current study, we investigated how sleep alters functional connectivity in higher-order learning networks that support problem solving and rule learning-related procedural skills. Methods Participants (n = 38) were trained on a procedural skills task; the Tower of Hanoi (ToH), that requires the acquisition of a novel cognitive strategy (e.g., recursive logic), while undergoing functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). After either a full night of sleep (n=19) or a full day of wakefulness (n=19), participants were retested on the same task in the fMRI. Resting state activity was acquired before (R1) and after the training session (R2), and before the retest session (R3). Results Behavioral performance on the ToH improved following sleep compared to wake (reduced number of errors: t(38)=2.92, p=0.006, d=1.24). Regions associated with higher-order learning and cognitive complexity (i.e., the caudate) and regions typically implicated in sequence learning (i.e., the putamen, hippocampus, cerebellum) were selected as regions of interest (ROI). Increased functional connectivity across the retention interval (R3-R2) was observed in the sleep vs. wake condition between the caudate and the motor cortex (t(36)=3.32, p=0.042, FWE). By contrast, changes in functional connectivity were not observed between the putamen and other ROIs. Conclusion These results suggest that sleep supports improved consolidation of motor skills that involve the acquisition of a novel cognitive strategy. Sleep enhanced functional connectivity in brain areas associated with higher-order cognitive skills (i.e., the caudate), but not regions typically associated with motor skills (i.e., the putamen) that are required to execute the solution to the cognitive procedural skill. Support (if any) Natural Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada

Learning contextual factors, student engagement, and problem-solving skills: A Chinese perspective

Although problem-solving skills are considered as key higher order cognitive skills, in the Chinese learning context there are gaps in the literature regarding more comprehensive examinations of which factors are likely to promote university students' creative problem-solving skills. We explored the relationships of the learning contextual factors of higher order learning and effective teaching practices with student rule-oriented, procedural, and intellectual engagement, and the students' problem-solving skills. Participants were 21,584 junior undergraduate students at 10 Chinese universities. Findings indicate that (a) effective teaching practices were the most important determinants in formulating students' problem-solving skills, (b) higher order learning was the strongest predictor of student engagement, and (c) student engagement components mediated the relationship between learning contextual factors and the development of problem-solving skills. The results of an importance–performance map analysis revealed that teachers' constructive feedback to students was a specific weakness in current Chinese teaching practices. Therefore, teachers need to provide students with more timely and facilitative feedback on their academic performance.

Inquiry-based Science Education and e-Learning

Science classrooms (even in the time of the pandemic) should provide more challenging, inquiry-based, authentic and higher-order learning experiences allowing students to participate in scientific practices and tasks. Rich scientific databases, e-Learning tools and digital educational resources can serve as a catalyst for science learning. They can offer a better understanding of complex scientific research, making science understandable and interesting to the students.

Critical Issues and Answers of Outcome-Based Education for Technical Institutions in India

The revolution of the world economy and higher education are driving profound changes in the engineering education system. Worldwide adaptation of outcome-based education framework and enhanced focus on higher-order learning and professional skills necessitates a paradigm shift in traditional practices of curriculum design, education delivery, and assessment. In recent years, worldwide sweeping reforms are being undertaken to bring about essential changes in engineering education in terms of what to teach (content) and how to teach (knowledge delivery) and how to assess (student learning). MHRD and AICTE jointly introduce so many new professional skills through MOOCs and also set some performance indicator to measure the outcomes. This chapter deals with the critical issues present in technical institutions and how it can be neutralized through POs, PSOs, PEOs, and Bloom's Taxonomy.

Patterns of Engagement Among Puerto Rican University Completers: Do Major and Gender Matter?

Researchers conducted a correlational study utilizing data from a public 4-year institution in Puerto Rico to understand differences in the levels and types of student engagement reported by graduating students, based on gender and major. Findings indicated that graduates from physical sciences, engineering, mathematics, and computing majors perceived a distinct engagement culture, with significantly higher emphasis on higher order learning and report writing, and lower institutional emphasis on providing academic and non-academic support.