US POLICY TOWARDS NORTH KOREA THROUGH THE PRISM OF THE THEORY OF EXTENDED NUCLEAR DETERRENCE

The US policy towards North Korea is shaped by the nuclear non-proliferation policy and security guarantees provided to Japan and the Republic of Korea. These guarantees have a dual purpose. On the one hand, they are a tool to deter the DPRK from aggression against other countries in the region and, above all, US allies – Japan and South Korea. On the other hand, these guarantees are also an assurance of the latter's abandonment of the policy of acquiring a nuclear arsenal. The aim of the article is to analyze the foundations of Washington's policy towards Pyongyang and its influence on relations with allies through the prism of the theory of extended nuclear deterrence. It is stated that the effectiveness of deterrence consists of the conviction of the willingness to react with an adequate response. At the same time, the persuasiveness of extended deterrence is lower, as the protecting state must respond to threats from the ally that is to say outside its own national borders. There is controversy among scholars who reflect on the relevance of extended deterrence during the Cold War and in the modern security environment. It is noted that the emergence of new threats and an increasing number of conflicts, if any, change the nature of extended deterrence, but this does not diminish the importance of the "nuclear umbrella" of the United States for both the NPT and the security of the region. The author analyzes the reasons for the United States' security guarantees for South Korea and Japan. Particular attention is paid to the factor of North Korea's aggressive policy and its progress in the development of the nuclear missile program. With the reduction and withdrawal of US troops from Japan and South Korea, Pyongyang's destructive policies have exacerbated the American allies' sense of danger and provoked talks about developing their own nuclear programs. This scenario threatened the NPT regime and international stability, as well as US strategic interests in the region. Therefore, Washington is stepping up cooperation with its allies in the process of resolving the problem of North Korea's nuclear missile program and is officially reaffirming its unwavering security and defense commitments, which should restore trust between the parties and increase the role of extended deterrence in general.

Are trees and shrubs unsafe hiding places? Impact of plant forms on the perception of danger in urban green spaces in crime hot spots

Urban parks and forests are important for wellbeing, but feelings of unsafety limited their usage. Removal of vegetation from hotspots of fear is sometimes recommended as a means of boosting safety. However such actions should be approached with caution. One explanation, based on prospect-refuge theory, is that plants increase perceptions of danger because of their contribution to a setting’s effectiveness in concealing criminals. It is also believed that people do not like urban green spaces parks containing trees and shrubs that can act as hiding places because of the sense of danger that this vegetation evokes. To test this explanation, participants rated 57 photos of urban parks and forest parks settings park settings on perceived danger, effectiveness of concealment, and landscape preference. In addition, the effectiveness of concealment in the photos was measured assuming that the value of this variable is expressed by the percentage of the pixels occupied by trees and shrubs offering concealment in a photograph. Results confirmed that concealment and danger are highly correlated mediation analysis confirmed that the impact of concealment on preferences can be explained by perceived danger. When the danger was controlled, the efficiency of concealment had no influence on preferences.

Are trees and shrubs unsafe hiding places? Impact of plant forms on the perception of danger in urban green spaces in crime hot spots

Urban parks and forests are important for wellbeing, but feelings of unsafety limited their usage. Removal of vegetation from hotspots of fear is sometimes recommended as a means of boosting safety. However such actions should be approached with caution. One explanation, based on prospect-refuge theory, is that plants increase perceptions of danger because of their contribution to a setting’s effectiveness in concealing criminals. It is also believed that people do not like urban green spaces parks containing trees and shrubs that can act as hiding places because of the sense of danger that this vegetation evokes. To test this explanation, participants rated 57 photos of urban parks and forest parks settings park settings on perceived danger, effectiveness of concealment, and landscape preference. In addition, the effectiveness of concealment in the photos was measured assuming that the value of this variable is expressed by the percentage of the pixels occupied by trees and shrubs offering concealment in a photograph. Results confirmed that concealment and danger are highly correlated mediation analysis confirmed that the impact of concealment on preferences can be explained by perceived danger. When the danger was controlled, the efficiency of concealment had no influence on preferences.

Distress and Resilience in Days of COVID-19: International Study of Samples from Israel, Brazil, and the Philippines

We compared three types of resilience (individual, community, and national resilience), two indicators of distress (sense of danger and distress symptoms) and wellbeing, among samples from Israel, Brazil, and the Philippines, during the “first-wave” of COVID-19 pandemic. Though significant differences were found among the samples regarding all variables, similarities were also emerged. Individual resilience and wellbeing negatively predicted distress symptoms in each sample, and women of all samples reported higher level of distress-symptoms compared with men. The differences between the samples are presented and discussed. Understanding the similarities and the differences, between these cultures, may help developing efficient countermeasures tailored to each country. This knowledge may promote efficient health policy to foster people’s ability to cope with the hardship and to prevent future psychological and health implications.

Thinking as Heretics

The significance of thinking in the world and about the world constitutes the value of heresy. Thus, the best in the sense of nobility of human spirit is the capacity of heretic questioning. The unique paradox of this situation is such that, even though the progress of civilisation has always been the work of heretics, civilisations are themselves destroyers of heretics. Thus, those who contemplated the future of mankind from the heretical perspectives, were all, during the past centuries, inspired with a sense of danger. They lived with a rare conviction that everything had become questionable and that history was no more inspired with a consciousness of its nullity. As compared with these heretics, we have become meaningless creatures, for whom the awareness of life has ceased to exist. That is why we live in a process of changing life which enforces no change in our mode of thinking. It follows, then, that humankind is voyaging upon an uncharted sea, unable to reach any shore which will give it a clear perspective on the whole.

Gdy słowo dzieli. Mowa pogardy i nienawiści w relacjach między ludźmi

Hate speech is defined as verbal abuse against minority groups. Its emotional basis is contempt which activates anger and revulsion. Therefore, it seems to be justified to speak of “contempt speech and hate speech” as a spreading social phenomenon, in effect resulting in a generalised deterioration in attitudes toward minorities. The media and public figures play a huge role in promoting hate speech, and it is also fostered by the sense of danger accompanying the COVID-19 pandemic. In order to stop this process, we should start to perceive hate speech as a serious social problem, the conditions and consequences of which should be the subject of reflection and scientific studies.

Do Interactions With School Resource Officers Predict Students’ Likelihood of Being Disciplined and Feelings of Safety? Mixed-Methods Evidence From Two School Districts

School resource officers (SROs) are common in schools, yet consequences of their presence are poorly understood. This study leveraged mixed-methods data from student surveys and group interviews across 25 schools to examine how the frequency of interactions and trust/comfort between students and SROs relate to disciplinary outcomes and feelings of safety. We found no evidence that, in this context, more frequent interactions or differing trust/comfort with SROs increased disciplinary consequences, perhaps because, as students report, SROs tended to not engage in formal discipline. We found that, although SROs were seen as increasing safety, interactions with SROs may have heightened students’ sense of danger, potentially mitigating any benefit to students’ overall feelings of safety. Implications for use of SROs are discussed.

PTSD symptoms and coping mechanism of nurses in Poland before the COVID-19 pandemic. A cross-sectional study

Introduction. Secondary traumatic stress (STS) is a consequence of the indirect experience of trauma. The symptoms of STS are similar to those experienced by people who directly experience traumatic events in the form of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Aim. The aim of the study was to determine the frequency of the symptoms of PTSD and to establish the role of coping strategies in the development of PTSD symptoms among Polish nurses. The study was conducted before the COVID-19 pandemic. Material and methods. The study was conducted in the Podkarpackie Province (Poland) in clinical hospitals and hospital out-patient clinics. The results of studies conducted among 509 nurses were analyzed. The mean age of the respondents was 35 years, and the mean work seniority was 11 years. The IES-R scale and Mini-COPE were used in the study. Results. At least moderate PTSD symptoms were found in 42.4% of the surveyed nurses. The results showed that maladaptive stress coping strategies played a major role in the development of PTSD symptoms in the group of nurses. Conclusion. Nurses are a professional group exposed to a high risk of traumatic encounters that may result in PTSD/STS, therefore this professional group should be targeted at prophylactic programs and training in dealing with traumatic stress. The COVID pandemic and the related restrictions, organizational chaos, constant fear and a sense of danger are serious traumatizing factors and can seriously contribute to the increase in stress disorders among nurses and other medical professionals.

A Renewed Outbreak of the COVID−19 Pandemic: A Longitudinal Study of Distress, Resilience, and Subjective Well-Being

Considering the potential impact of COVID-19 on the civil society, a longitudinal study was conducted to identify levels of distress, resilience, and the subjective well-being of the population. The study is based on two repeated measurements conducted at the end of the pandemic’s “first wave” and the beginning of the “second wave” on a sample (n = 906) of Jewish Israeli respondents, who completed an online questionnaire distributed by an Internet panel company. Three groups of indicators were assessed: signs of distress (sense of danger, distress symptoms, and perceived threats), resilience (individual, community, and national), and subjective well-being (well-being, hope, and morale). Results indicated the following: (a) a significant increase in distress indicators, with effect sizes of sense of danger, distress symptoms, and perceived threats (Cohen’s d 0.614, 0.120, and 0.248, respectively); (b) a significant decrease in resilience indicators, with effect sizes of individual, community, and national resilience (Cohen’s d 0.153, 0.428, and 0.793, respectively); and (c) a significant decrease in subjective well-being indicators with effect sizes of well-being, hope, and morale (Cohen’s d 0.116, 0.336, and 0.199, respectively). To conclude, COVID-19 had a severe, large-scale impact on the civil society, leading to multidimensional damage and a marked decrease in the individual, community, and national resilience of the population.

Danger, Anger, and Noise: The Women Punks of the Late 1970s and Their Music

This chapter will give an overview of the dangerous environment for young women in the British punk subculture in the late 1970s, followed by a discussion of the feelings of anger this sense of danger prompted in them, contributed to by a feeling of lack of control over those who appeared to have invincible power over their lives. Finally, the ways in which this anger translated into the punk songs they played will be discussed. Using contemporary music press and radical press reviews and features, extracts from published diaries of the time, and the author’s own interviews with women active in punk bands, the chapter highlights and explores the unexpectedness and originality of the noise that these women made, and its reception by male journalists at the time.