POST-PRINT MANUSCRIPT - I know you so I will regulate you: Closeness but not target’s emotion type affects all stages of extrinsic emotion regulation

The Extended Process Model of Emotion Regulation outlines the processes people use to influence the timing and type of emotions they have. The current study applies this model to extrinsic regulation (regulating others’ emotions). In a 2x2 between-subject design, we examine how the target person’s emotion (anger/anxiety), and target/regulator closeness (close/distant) interact to predict the regulator’s intention to regulate, regulation process choice, evaluation of regulation success (regulation self-efficacy), and empathy toward the target. Participants (N = 266) were randomly allocated to one of four conditions to read three vignettes where a close/distant target expressed anger/anxiety. Compared to distant targets, close targets elicited significantly greater intention to regulate, social sharing (but not humor, reappraisal, or distancing), self-efficacy of implementation and empathy. There was no support for emotion type or emotion-by-closeness hypotheses. We conclude that closeness but not emotion type affects emotion regulation at all three stages of the Extended Process Model of Emotion Regulation. Future research could include the effect of closeness on additional processes (such as direct situation modification, or giving space).

Factors in the effectiveness of anticipatory guilt and shame appeals on health communications: The role of self-construal, regulatory focus and personal cultural orientation

<p>Negative emotional appeals are commonly used in health messages to cut through the clutter and promote health behaviour change. A research gap exists as to how the emotions of guilt and shame and respective arousals to these emotions act to influence compliance with health messages. Research rarely distinguishes between guilt and shame appeals, different emotional and psychological responses to the two types of appeals, and the main moderators that influence the response to these appeals. To address this gap, this empirical study builds and tests a model for better understanding the processes by which guilt and shame appeals lead to compliance with health messages. Drawing on the theoretical frameworks of cognition, emotion, motivation and research focusing on guilt or/and shame messages and behavioural intention, this study develops an extended model that incorporates influential variables. These include the significant mediating variable of the coping response to emotion, and the moderating variables of self-construal, regulatory focus, and personal cultural orientation. Binge drinking among young adults (aged 16 to 30) is the research context for this study. A series of experiments was conducted to test the research model. Data was collected through an online questionnaire survey among university undergraduates in New Zealand. The main survey collected 301 useable responses including the treatment (n = 266) and control (35) groups. The survey data were analysed using a combination of analysis of covariance and covariance-based structural equation modelling. The results broadly support the proposed model for health communications using guilt and shame appeals. Findings revealed that the coping response has a partial mediating effect on the relationship between guilt/shame arousals and message compliance. Both guilt and shame arousals influence not only message compliance (directly) but also the coping response (indirectly). As predicted, regulatory focus and self-construal were found to moderate guilt/shame arousals from respective emotional appeals. Regulatory focus moderated the levels of shame arousals from shame appeals; that is, prevention-focused individuals exhibited higher shame arousals than their promotion-focused counterparts. Self-construal moderated the levels of guilt arousals from guilt appeals; that is, independent self-construals exhibited higher guilt arousals than their interdependent counterparts. However, there were no interactive effects of self-construal with self-referencing or sources of evaluation on guilt/shame arousals. Personal cultural orientation moderated the impact of shame arousals, but not those of guilt arousals, on message compliance. That is, shame predicted message compliance in collectivists, but not individualists. Interestingly, there was no main differential effect of guilt versus shame arousals in message compliance, but there was an interactive effect of emotion type with personal cultural orientation as previously mentioned. The contributions of this study include refining understanding of guilt versus shame, developing the coping response construct, and identifying key moderators and illustrating their impacts on self-conscious emotional arousals. These contributions open new lines of inquiry in the health communications and discrete emotions literature. First, previous discrete emotions literature has mentioned the effects of unintentional emotions, but this research controlled for these effects. It examined guilt and shame separately through respective emotional arousals rather than emotional appeals. Second, the study extended the model of the effectiveness of guilt versus shame appeals in health communications where the coping response is an instrumental mediator. This mediator influences whether or not the receivers actually take on compliant behaviour. Third, the present study differentiated the effect of guilt versus shame appeals. It provides conditions where such appeals are effective. These conditions are type of emotion interacting with self-construal, and regulatory focus. In addition, the study identified the condition under which guilt or shame arousals are most effective. Effectiveness depends on emotion type and personal cultural orientation. The findings have important practical implications. By understanding how distinct emotion (i.e., guilt versus shame) works and how coping responses (i.e., adaptive versus maladaptive) to these emotions are triggered, practitioners can better structure emotional messaging. Knowledge of message receiver attributes will help them select media appropriately. These attributes are independent versus interdependent, promotion focused versus prevention focused, and individualist versus collectivist. Thus, insights from this research could help health marketers, policy makers as well as health promotion agencies to effectively develop health communications campaigns with more appealing message content and appropriate media selection.</p>

Factors in the effectiveness of anticipatory guilt and shame appeals on health communications: The role of self-construal, regulatory focus and personal cultural orientation

<p>Negative emotional appeals are commonly used in health messages to cut through the clutter and promote health behaviour change. A research gap exists as to how the emotions of guilt and shame and respective arousals to these emotions act to influence compliance with health messages. Research rarely distinguishes between guilt and shame appeals, different emotional and psychological responses to the two types of appeals, and the main moderators that influence the response to these appeals. To address this gap, this empirical study builds and tests a model for better understanding the processes by which guilt and shame appeals lead to compliance with health messages. Drawing on the theoretical frameworks of cognition, emotion, motivation and research focusing on guilt or/and shame messages and behavioural intention, this study develops an extended model that incorporates influential variables. These include the significant mediating variable of the coping response to emotion, and the moderating variables of self-construal, regulatory focus, and personal cultural orientation. Binge drinking among young adults (aged 16 to 30) is the research context for this study. A series of experiments was conducted to test the research model. Data was collected through an online questionnaire survey among university undergraduates in New Zealand. The main survey collected 301 useable responses including the treatment (n = 266) and control (35) groups. The survey data were analysed using a combination of analysis of covariance and covariance-based structural equation modelling. The results broadly support the proposed model for health communications using guilt and shame appeals. Findings revealed that the coping response has a partial mediating effect on the relationship between guilt/shame arousals and message compliance. Both guilt and shame arousals influence not only message compliance (directly) but also the coping response (indirectly). As predicted, regulatory focus and self-construal were found to moderate guilt/shame arousals from respective emotional appeals. Regulatory focus moderated the levels of shame arousals from shame appeals; that is, prevention-focused individuals exhibited higher shame arousals than their promotion-focused counterparts. Self-construal moderated the levels of guilt arousals from guilt appeals; that is, independent self-construals exhibited higher guilt arousals than their interdependent counterparts. However, there were no interactive effects of self-construal with self-referencing or sources of evaluation on guilt/shame arousals. Personal cultural orientation moderated the impact of shame arousals, but not those of guilt arousals, on message compliance. That is, shame predicted message compliance in collectivists, but not individualists. Interestingly, there was no main differential effect of guilt versus shame arousals in message compliance, but there was an interactive effect of emotion type with personal cultural orientation as previously mentioned. The contributions of this study include refining understanding of guilt versus shame, developing the coping response construct, and identifying key moderators and illustrating their impacts on self-conscious emotional arousals. These contributions open new lines of inquiry in the health communications and discrete emotions literature. First, previous discrete emotions literature has mentioned the effects of unintentional emotions, but this research controlled for these effects. It examined guilt and shame separately through respective emotional arousals rather than emotional appeals. Second, the study extended the model of the effectiveness of guilt versus shame appeals in health communications where the coping response is an instrumental mediator. This mediator influences whether or not the receivers actually take on compliant behaviour. Third, the present study differentiated the effect of guilt versus shame appeals. It provides conditions where such appeals are effective. These conditions are type of emotion interacting with self-construal, and regulatory focus. In addition, the study identified the condition under which guilt or shame arousals are most effective. Effectiveness depends on emotion type and personal cultural orientation. The findings have important practical implications. By understanding how distinct emotion (i.e., guilt versus shame) works and how coping responses (i.e., adaptive versus maladaptive) to these emotions are triggered, practitioners can better structure emotional messaging. Knowledge of message receiver attributes will help them select media appropriately. These attributes are independent versus interdependent, promotion focused versus prevention focused, and individualist versus collectivist. Thus, insights from this research could help health marketers, policy makers as well as health promotion agencies to effectively develop health communications campaigns with more appealing message content and appropriate media selection.</p>

Differential Hemispheric Lateralization of Emotions and Related Display Behaviors: Emotion-Type Hypothesis

There are two well-known hypotheses regarding hemispheric lateralization of emotions. The Right Hemisphere Hypothesis (RHH) postulates that emotions and associated display behaviors are a dominant and lateralized function of the right hemisphere. The Valence Hypothesis (VH) posits that negative emotions and related display behaviors are modulated by the right hemisphere and positive emotions and related display behaviors are modulated by the left hemisphere. Although both the RHH and VH are supported by extensive research data, they are mutually exclusive, suggesting that there may be a missing factor in play that may provide a more accurate description of how emotions are lateralization in the brain. Evidence will be presented that provides a much broader perspective of emotions by embracing the concept that emotions can be classified into primary and social types and that hemispheric lateralization is better explained by the Emotion-type Hypothesis (ETH). The ETH posits that primary emotions and related display behaviors are modulated by the right hemisphere and social emotions and related display behaviors are modulated by the left hemisphere.

Facial Emotion Recognition and Emotional Memory From the Ovarian-Hormone Perspective: A Systematic Review

BackgroundWe review original papers on ovarian-hormone status in two areas of emotional processing: facial emotion recognition and emotional memory. Ovarian-hormone status is operationalized by the levels of the steroid sex hormones 17β-estradiol (E2) and progesterone (P4), fluctuating over the natural menstrual cycle and suppressed under oral contraceptive (OCs) use. We extend previous reviews addressing single areas of emotional processing. Moreover, we systematically examine the role of stimulus features such as emotion type or stimulus valence and aim at elucidating factors that reconcile the inconsistent results.MethodsWe followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines and included papers published until September 2020 indexed in PubMed and Web of Science databases. Search terms were MeSH terms (emotional OR emotion) AND (X) AND (estrogen OR progesterone OR menstrual cycle OR oral contraceptives) with (X) representing our separately searched areas, resulting in (processing OR recognition OR empathy), and (memory OR recall). To be included, articles had to (1) be written and published in English, (2) examine healthy, non-pregnant adult women in their reproductive age, and (3) measure or at least estimate levels of E2 and P4. In PubMed, the search was (4) limited to humans and (5) to the search term present in the title or abstract.ResultsFeatures of the provided stimulus material (emotion type and/or valence) constitute a relevant influence that interacts with E2- and P4-related ovarian-hormone status. For instance, recognition of basic emotions appears to be more related to P4- than E2-levels. Quite consistent, OC intake (vs. natural menstrual cycling) was accompanied by impaired recognition accuracy of basic and also complex emotions, although not in a recent large-sample study assessing complex emotions. Memory recall of negative content was mainly enhanced by P4, especially after having been stressed.Discussion and ConclusionWe document the methodological diversity in the field, presumably contributing to the heterogeneity of results. More studies explicitly contrasting the early follicular phase, mid-cycle phase, mid-luteal, and OC intake while standardizing tasks are needed. Research would take advantage of using within-subject designs and accounting for the recognition of complex emotions.

The emotion storyboard: A method to examine social judgments of emotion

As perceivers, we need to understand context to make social judgments about emotion, such as judging whether emotion is appropriate. We propose a graphic novel-like method, the emotion storyboard, for use in research on social judgments of emotion. Across two studies, participants were randomly assigned to read emotion storyboards or written vignettes to compare the efficacy of the emotion storyboard to that of vignettes in studies on social judgments of emotion. In Study 1, undergraduates (N = 194) answered comprehension questions and rated story clarity and immersion. Participants also made social judgments of emotion by rating main character emotion control and appropriateness of intensity. To further compare the efficacy of the methods, in Study 2, Amazon Mechanical Turk workers (N = 213) answered comprehension questions while response times were recorded, rated clarity, answered a race manipulation check, and rated main character emotion type appropriateness. Overall, emotion storyboards resulted in greater clarity ratings, greater race manipulation check accuracy, and in some instances, enhanced comprehension and comprehension response times relative to vignettes. In emotion storyboards, main character emotion was rated more controlled and more appropriate in intensity, but not different in emotion type appropriateness, than in vignettes. Overall, the method offers a new method of examining social elements of emotion that enhances comprehension and maximizes experimental efficiency.

Factors Affecting Social Media Users’ Emotions Regarding Food Safety Issues: Content Analysis of a Debate among Chinese Weibo Users on Genetically Modified Food Security

Social media is gradually building an online information environment regarding health. This environment is filled with many types of users’ emotions regarding food safety, especially negative emotions that can easily cause panic or anger among the population. However, the mechanisms of how it affects users’ emotions have not been fully studied. Therefore, from the perspective of communication and social psychology, this study uses the content analysis method to analyze factors affecting social media users’ emotions regarding food safety issues. In total, 371 tweet samples of genetically modified food security in Sina Weibo (similar to Twitter) were encoded, measured, and analyzed. The major findings are as follows: (1) Tweet account type, tweet topic, and emotion object were all significantly related to emotion type. Tweet depth and objectivity were both positively affected by emotion type, and objectivity had a greater impact. (2) Account type, tweet topic, and emotion object were all significantly related to emotion intensity. When the depths were the same, emotion intensity became stronger with the decrease in objectivity. (3) Account type, tweet topic, emotion object, and emotion type were all significantly related to a user’s emotion communication capacity. Tweet depth, objectivity, and user’s emotion intensity were positively correlated with emotion communication capacity. Positive emotions had stronger communication capacities than negative ones, which is not consistent with previous studies. These findings help us to understand both theoretically and practically the changes and dissemination of user’s emotions in a food safety and health information environment.

Adaptive Vocabulary Construction for Frustration Intensity Modelling in Customer Support Dialog Texts

This paper examines emotion intensity prediction in dialogs between clients and customer support representatives occurring on Twitter. We focus on a single emotion type, namely, frustration, modelling the user's level of frustration while attempting to predict frustration intensity on the current and next turn, based on the text of turns coming from both dialog participants. A subset of the Kaggle Customer Support on Twitter dataset was used as the modelling data, annotated with per-turn frustration intensity ratings. We propose to represent dialog turns by binary encoded bags of automatically selected keywords to be subsequently used in a machine learning classifier. To assess the classification quality, we examined two different levels of accuracy imprecision tolerance. Our model achieved a level of accuracy significantly higher than a statistical baseline for prediction of frustration intensity for a current turn. However, we did not find the additional information from customer support turns to help predict frustration intensity of the next turn, and the reason for that is possibly the stability of user’s frustration level over the course of the conversation, in other words, the inability of support’s response to exert much influence to user’s initial frustration level.