Laboratory Measurements of the Size Distribution and Activation Ratio of Synthetic Ice Nuclei

<p>Laboratory measurement of the particle size distribution and cloud condensation nucleation activation ratio are conducted using two types of synthetic ice nuclei (IN). New Engineered Organic Nuclei (NEON) are fabricated by fermentation and so-called E-lysis of Gram-negative bacteria, which are havested via centrifugation and resuspended in a NaHCO<sub>3</sub> buffer (pH of ~7.8) for final inactivation of lysis escape muntants. NEON is inactivated using 1.25 % (final concentration) glutaraldehyde (GA) and stored in a deep freezer. The NEON with GA solution is atomized using a Sparging Liquid Aerosol Generator (SLAG), which does not sheer or impact the aerosols. The measured size distribution is compared to aerosols produced by the TSI Atmomizer (Model 3076), which impacts generated droplets. The size distribution is measured using a TSI Scanning Mobility Particle Sizer Spectrometer (SMPS) and a TSI Aerodynamic Particle Sizer. A DMT Cloud Condensation Nuclei Counter (CCNC) operated at 0.6 % supersaturation and a TSI Condensation Particle Counter (CPC) is used to measure the activation ratio, which is important to determine effectiveness of the NEON as an immersion ice nuclei. The NEON results are compared to IN produced by burning silver iodine cloud seeding flares.</p>

Estimation of atmospheric particle formation rates through an analytical formula: validation and application in Hyytiälä and Puijo, Finland

The formation rates of 3 nm particles were estimated at SMEAR IV, Puijo (Finland), where the continuous measurements extend only down to 7 nm in diameter. We extrapolated the formation rates at 7 nm (J7) down to 3 nm (J3) based on an approximate solution to the aerosol general dynamic equation, assuming a constant condensational growth rate, a power-law size-dependent scavenging rate, and negligible self-coagulation rate for the nucleation mode particles. To evaluate our method, we first applied it to new particle formation (NPF) events in Hyytiälä (Finland), which extend down to 3 nm, and, therefore, J3 and J7 can be determined directly from the measured size distribution evolution. The Hyytiälä results show that the estimated daily mean J3 values slightly overestimate the observed mean J3, but a promising 91 % of the estimated J3 values are within a factor of 2 from the measured ones. However, when considering detailed daily time evolution, the agreement is not as good due to fluctuations in data as well as uncertainties in estimated growth rates, which are required in order to calculate the time lag between formation of 3 and 7 nm particles. At Puijo, the mean J7 for clear NPF days during April 2007–December 2015 was 0.44 cm−3 s−1, while the extrapolated mean J3 was 0.61 cm−3 s−1.

Estimation of atmospheric particle formation rates through an analytical formula: Validation and application in Hyytiälä and Puijo, Finland

The formation rates of 3-nm particles were estimated at SMEAR IV, Puijo (Finland) where the continuous measurements extend only down to 7 nm in diameter. We extrapolated the formation rates at 7 nm (J7) down to 3 nm (J3) based on an approximate solution to the aerosol general dynamic equation, assuming a constant condensational growth rate, a power-law size dependent scavenging rate and negligible self-coagulation rate for the nucleation mode particles. To evaluate our method, we first applied it to new-particle formation (NPF) events in Hyytiälä (Finland), which extend down to 3 nm, and, therefore, J3 and J7 can be determined directly from the measured size distribution evolution. The Hyytiälä results show that the estimated daily mean J3 slightly overestimate the observed mean J3, but a promising 84 % of the estimated J3 are within a factor of 2 from the measured ones. However, when considering detailed daily time evolution, the agreement is typically poor presumably due to uncertainties in estimated growth rates which are required in order to calculate the time-lag between formation of 3-nm and 7-nm particles. At Puijo, the mean and median J7 for clear NPF days during April 2007–December 2015 were 0.23 and 0.07 cm−3 s−1, respectively, while the extrapolated mean and median J3 were 0.47 and 0.13 cm−3 s−1, respectively.

On the growth of nucleation mode particles: source rates of condensable vapor in polluted and clean environments

The growth properties of nucleation mode particles were investigated. The variation of source rates of condensable vapors in different locations and environmental conditions was analyzed. The measurements were performed in background stations in Antarctica, in Finnish Lapland and Boreal Forest stations (SMEAR I and SMEAR II) as well as in polluted urban sites in Athens, Marseille and New Delhi. Taking advantage of only the measured spectral evolution of aerosol particles as a function of time the formation and growth properties of nucleation mode aerosols were evaluated. The diameter growth-rate and condensation sink were obtained from the measured size distribution dynamics. Using this growth rate and condensation sink, the concentration of condensable vapors and their source rate were estimated. The growth rates and condensation sinks ranged between 0.3-20nmh-1 and 10-4-0.07s-1, respectively. The corresponding source rate of condensable vapors varied more than 4 orders of magnitude from 103 to over 107cm-1s-1. The highest condensation sink and source rate values were observed in New Delhi and the smallest values in Antarctica.

Minimizing Instrumental Broadening of the Drop Size Distribution with the M-Fast-FSSP

A modified version of the Fast-FSSP (the so-called M-Fast-FSSP) is introduced. It allows minimization of the instrumental broadening of measured cloud drop size distributions caused by laser beam inhomogeneities. This is achieved by applying a new technique based on a postexperiment stepwise reduction of the probe's sampling volume. For monodisperse glass bead samples it is shown that the width of the measured size distribution is considerably reduced when applying this technique, especially for large glass bead diameters. The instrumental broadening may exceed a factor of about 4 for a mean glass bead diameter of 30 μm. The M-Fast-FSSP was applied in two cloud measurement campaigns. For two specific cloud cases, the profile of the width of the measured drop size distribution changes significantly when applying the method.

Ultrastructural Organization of Bovine Chromaffin Cell Cortex—Analysis by Cryofixation and Morphometry of Aspects Pertinent to Exocytosis

We have analyzed ultrathin sections from isolated bovine chromaffin cells grown on plastic support, after fast freezing, by quantitative electron microscopy. We determined the size and intracellular distribution of dense core vesicles (DVs or chromaffin granules) and of clear vesicles (CVs). The average diameter of DVs is 356 nm, and that of CVs varies between 35–195 nm (average 90 nm). DVs appear randomly packed inside cells. When the distance of the center of DVs to the cell membrane (CM) is analyzed, DV density is found to decrease as the CM is approached. According to Monte Carlo simulations performed on the basis of the measured size distribution of DVs, this decay can be assigned to a “wall effect.” Any cortical barrier, regardless of its function, seems to not impose a restriction to a random cortical DV packing pattern. The number of DVs closely approaching the CM (docked DVs) is estimated to be between 364 and 629 (average 496), i.e., 0.45 to 0.78 DVs/μm2 CM. Deprivation of Ca2+, priming by increasing [Ca2+]i, or depolarization by high [K+]e for 10 s (the effect of which was controlled electrophysiologically and predicted to change the number of readily releasable granules [RRGs]) does not significantly change the number of peripheral DVs. The reason may be that (a) structural docking implies only in part functional docking (capability of immediate release), and (b) exocytosis is rapidly followed by endocytosis and replenishment of the pool of docked DVs. Whereas the potential contribution of DVs to CM area increase by immediate release can be estimated at 19–33%, that of CVs is expected to be in the range of 5.6–8.0%.

On Aerosol Size Distribution Measurement by Laser and White Light Optical Particle Counters

Light scattering optical particle counters are widely used for size distribution measurement of aerosol particles. The accuracy of the measured size distribution is dependent upon the response of the counter, which is affected by the refractive index and shape of the particles as well as by the optical design of the instrument, including the light source used. This paper addresses the measurement accuracy of the optical particle counter. Data are presented showing the response characteristics of several widely used commercial optical counters and the comparative size distribution measurement made by means of these instruments.

The Effect of Nuclei on the Inception of Bubble and Sheet Cavitation on Axisymmetric Bodies

Hydrogen bubbles were generated as cavitation nuclei and their distributions were measured. The number and size distribution of bubble cavities generated on axisymmetric bodies was calculated and compared with experimental results. The measured size distribution of bubble cavities agreed qualitatively with the calculated value, but the total number of cavities was about one half of the calculation. The role of stream nuclei on the inception of sheet cavity was investigated experimentally. Without added nuclei, the value of the incipient cavitation number σi showed a large scattering, whereas with added nuclei the scattering became fairly small and σi converged to the upper limit of that when no nuclei were added. σi with added nuclei also coincided with the desinent cavitation number σd, and σd remained unchanged by adding nuclei.