Communication across a Career in Science

The goals and needs of a researcher in terms of publication and communication change from their first efforts as a graduate student to future professional careers up to the level of distinguished professors, including the type of publication strategy to adopt, and the growing responsibility to “give something back” to the field in terms of mentoring, reviewing, and editing as a career develops. This chapter explores these aspects of a career in science, as well as other professional types of writing, such as edited books and textbooks.

What Happens after Publication?

This chapter explores in detail what happens after a paper is published, in terms of the ways in which papers have an impact, the importance of subsequent citations, and how the importance of a paper to its parent field can be eventually judged. This is illustrated by following the citation trends of several key historical scientific papers (e.g., Watson and Crick on DNA, the first report of the identification of Buckminsterfullerene) and exploring rates of citation, the peak citation times, the manner in which the papers were referred to at different times, and, in general, the way in which ripples of information transfer across the scientific community. Examples of papers to which reaction was negative (e.g., the report on cold fusion) or mixed (NASA’s report of possible fossil micro-organisms in Martian rock) are also discussed.

The History and Future of Scientific Publishing

This chapter reviews the development of the modern scientific paper, from the sixteenth century forward, and explores the ways in which scientific information has been disseminated in the past. Great scientific advances of the past are discussed in the context of how they were first published, or otherwise brought to the attention of the broader scientific community, and the modern scientific publishing sector is explored. The types and categories of scientific journals are discussed, along with an overview of current publishing trends, such as the exponential increase in number of journals, changes in the ways in which researchers access the literature, and in particular the emergence and current state of open access journals. In addition, various ways in which journals are ranked are discussed, and key trends in such lists over the last ten years or so explored.

Expanding the Comfort Zone

In the modern scientific world, it is recognized that all researchers need to be able to explain their research to audiences other than those who are expert in the field, and that different skills and approaches are needed to be able to explain complex research to a range of audiences of different levels and backgrounds. In this chapter, key approaches to doing this successfully, whether in written or oral form, are explored, with examples to illustrate points. In addition, the place and use of alternative forms of communication of scientific information (e.g., social media) are discussed, as well as ideas such as competitions whereby students “dance their PhD” or present a “three-minute thesis,” and the writing of popular science articles and books. A final important part of this chapter concerns the relationships between scientists and the media, and the occasional conflicts between reporting of science through professional means and that in the media.

Conferences and Presentations

As well as producing scientific papers, researchers communicate in many different ways, some written (e.g., reports, theses) and others nonwritten (e.g., presentations, posters). This chapter focuses specifically on making a successful scientific presentation to a professional audience, and the differences in approach from writing to verbal presentation. The chapter explores key themes, in particular focusing on the need for a presenter to put themselves in advance into the seat of an audience member, and prepare with a view to what they wish someone in that seat to get from the experience (my primary principle of all forms of communication is “first, and last, consider your audience”). Tips and advice for preparing a presentation, from layout to delivery, and presented, along with advice on the preparation of scientific posters.

The Perils of Peer Review

This chapter explores the detailed stages of publication of a scientific paper, starting with selection of journal by authors and submission of papers. The system architecture and roles of editors, editorial boards, and referees are examined, and the nature of the review process is discussed, including potential pitfalls, ethical considerations, possible outcomes, and the interactions between authors and journals. The significance of rejection of papers (and famous cases of papers that were first rejected by journals) is explored, and the steps following acceptance of a paper, right through to proof correction and publication, explained. In addition, future developments being evaluated today, such as postpublication (or even preresearch) peer review, are discussed.

What Does a Scientific Paper Say?

This chapter looks at how and when a group of researchers decide the time is right to write a paper, the reasons for writing a paper, and what the paper must say. Key characteristics of a scientific paper that inform its structure are used to introduce the sections of a modern paper and explain their functions. This approach allows a logical exploration of the sections of a scientific paper and their function. In addition, this chapter considers the effective presentation of scientific evidence, in terms of construction of effective figures and tables.

Some Final Thoughts

This short final chapter draws together key conclusions from the preceding chapters to finish the book with some short conclusions. We reflect on the personal characteristics typical of a scientist and the way in which they are trained to know that their work is not complete until it has been passed on and made an impact, and how those who follow a career in science know that this is a key way in which their careers will be judged. The benefits of a career in science are considered, but placed alongside the responsibilities and expectations in terms of integrity and trust. Finally, the central role of communication in science, the theme for the book as a whole, is emphasized once again.

Ethics and Integrity in Scientific Communication

Today, a major consideration in scientific publishing is obviously ethical issues or those relating to research integrity, and key concepts around falsification, fabrication, and plagiarism are explored in this chapter, in terms of defining key principles for good research practice underpinned by the highest standards of integrity, as is expected of all researchers today. There have been many high-profile cases of controversies involving scientific papers, and key case studies are described. In addition, issues such as failure to acknowledge conflicts of interest for the authors (e.g., the Lancet study by Wakefield et al. on the link between the MMR vaccine and autism) are discussed. Likely future trends including the nature of the refereeing process and the access to experimental data are explored, and a key focus is on the rights and responsibilities of authors and coauthors.

The Scientific Voice

This chapter is focused on the way in which scientists write, and the key characteristics that must describe their writing (i.e., clarity and avoidance of unnecessary complexity). The “voice” used in the modern scientific paper is discussed, with exploration of how this may be achieved, and some illustrative examples. In particular, examples are used to see how scientists present highly significant findings, or cast doubt on the findings of others. Some basic and simple principles for practicing and learning naturalistic yet professional writing skills are presented. The reader is encouraged to develop an ear for the rhythms of writing, and is equipped with the basic tools needed to do so. Further points that are discussed include the fact that effective scientific writing does not need to be stylish or deliberately complex, but must above all achieve clarity and a complete lack of ambiguity, while the writing should be “invisible” and place no barriers between reader and intended message. The chapter also considers the requirements for successful writing, including time, concentration, and suitable conditions.