Infoprocess

This chapter explores the concept of infoprocess. Concepts of process in various disciplines are examined in preparation to conceptualizing process from the management and IS perspectives. Business Process Reengineering (BPR) and Business Process Management (BPM) are discussed as the approaches relevant for IS research. The discussion proceeds to infoprocess (short for “informing process”), which is defined in terms of interrelated informing activities that deliver an outcome to a customer. The concept of infoprocesses involves aspects of data, cognition, and their intersection that results in information. Many organizational processes are infoprocesses, or have infoprocess segments. An analytical framework that applies to business process and infoprocess alike is elaborated. It includes two essential segments—design and performance. Infoprocess design is discussed in terms of composition, coordination, complexity, flexibility, and technology. Infoprocess performance is discussed in terms of process time, costs, and customer value. Process design determines process performance. Better performance can be achieved by optimizing each design aspect. Ensuing discussion covers the process-centered organization in conjunction with Enterprise Resource Planning systems and the BPR methodology. Challenges of BPR are examined and contrasted to the BPM approach. In the second part of the chapter, attention turns to the role of process approach in advanced forms of organizing. The virtual organization is discussed and expanded with exploring virtualness at large and a model of Tree of Virtual Life. Next, organizations enabling e-commerce and the mobile enterprise are examined from the process perspective. The discussion concludes by looking at potential perils of the process approach framed as a collision of different concepts of time.

Homo Informaticus

This chapter discusses the concept of homo informaticus—the individual organization member framed in the IVO perspective. Homo informaticus is a cognitive microcosm that performs complex cognitive processes, engages in decision making and satisfying of informing needs, and designs and evaluates information systems (IS). Discussed are cognitive processes of thinking, feeling, perceiving, memorizing/memory recalling, and learning. These cognitive processes are involved in the fundamental informing process that starts with perception of external data, continues with applying knowledge to data, and ends with inferring information (meaning). The perspective of key cognitive processes enriches the informing model: perception is driven by previous knowledge, memory retrieval is engaged, and thinking is an overall driver, engaging both ratio and emotions. The discussion addresses cognitive limitations. Memory is limited in volume and content, perception is prone to illusions, and thinking is susceptible to biases. These limitations influence the outcomes of informing (information created) and learning (knowledge acquired). Decision making is affected as well, as indicated in its various models that reveal non-rational aspects. It is argued that homo informaticus is subject to informing (information) needs and actively seeks to satisfy them. Several models addressing this topic are examined. The chapter also covers cognitive and learning types that can be used for understanding the diversity characterizing homo informaticus. Karl Jung's typology is coupled with the dimensions of data scope, location, and processing mode. Kolb's learning styles are discussed in turn. Furthermore, the system evaluation capability of homo informaticus is demonstrated in the context of system adoption models. Finally, the system design capability is discussed in the historical context of Scandinavian experience.

Infoculture

This chapter examines the stable beliefs, behaviors, and artifacts that revolve around organizational informing agents—culture of informing (infoculture). By putting on the lenses of infoculture, one can get a deeper insight into some well-known artifacts of organizational culture. While electronic digital information technologies (IT) play key roles in infocultures in the IT industry and e-commerce enterprises, any organization indeed exhibits beliefs and behaviors that refer to methods of manipulating data, managing knowledge, and to the technical means deployed to these ends. The argument deconstructs the literature on organizational culture to expose such infocultural aspects. The chapter defines components of infoculture and illustrates them with examples. Contributions to the cultural perspective are in emphasizing the behavioral component as well as in focusing on IT in their physical manifestations. It is furthermore argued that different infocultures can exist in the same company, based on the occupational group, profession, department, and other grounds. More often than not, IS departments and professionals nurture different beliefs and practices involving IT than do business departments. The second part of the chapter is devoted to categorizing infocultures. Combining relevant literatures with new insights yields in a six member taxonomy: the role/bureaucracy, matrix, clan/power, family, fiefdom/person, team, and knowledge infoculture. The last two categories advance the cultural approach to organization. Case evidence on infocultures in three case companies is used to illustrate these categories. The chapter also supplies a method of categorizing infocultures grounded on the idea of metaphor and an inquiry driven by the questions of who, what, when, why, and how.

Infopolitics

This chapter discusses informing politics (infopolitics), which is defined in terms of power, agendas, and flight/fight behaviors related to organizational informing agents. The phenomena of infopolitics are tracked back to the relevant literature in the fields of information systems and organization theory. The central concept in infopolitics is that of infopower. Infopower is defined, illustrated by examples from the literature, and grounded in structuration theory. Manipulative communication techniques, which may go unnoticed in organizations, are discussed and their relationships with infopolitics demonstrated. The discussion further covers a three-member categorization of resource-based infopower: data/IT control, expert power, and meaning management. In addition, alternative ontological views based on the premises of symbol, institution and object are proposed as a way of expanding theorizing on infopower. It is argued that information systems could impose themselves as the symbols of autonomy and domination (symbol infopower), and act adrift from designer's intentions (actant's informing influence). The chapter also discusses other elements of infopolitics. Infopolitical agenda is conceptualized in terms of goals, strategies, and tactics related to achieving and maintaining infopower. Infopolitical fight is defined in terms of a struggle for achieving one's infopolitical agenda, and infopolitical flight is referred to negotiations and coalition making aiming at achieving one's infopolitical agenda. All these concepts are traced to the relevant literature and demonstrated by a case study.

Infostructure

This chapter introduces the topic of informing structure (infostructure). Infostructure refers to stable patterns of relationships between data segments and in information technology arrangements. Infostructure parallels and complements the formal social structure of organization. The discussion covers infostructure dimensions called infohierarchy, infocentralization, infoformalization, infodispersion, and infofragmentation. It is argued that changes in infostructure introduced by new information systems (IS) are indispensable for changing organizational structure and often spearhead it. Extremes in some infostructural dimensions can indicate problems in organizational structure. The perspective of informal organizational structure is equally important. It has regained importance with the advent of Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) and social media. Informal structure can be identified via network theory and analysis, and the perspective of infostructure can assist in such an investigation. The chapter also discusses technology and its information technology (IT) branch. It is argued that organization scholars think of technology in broad, abstract terms, blending it into a larger social frame of transformational process. This approach typically does not address specific information technologies, with an exception made in hi-tech research. In contrast, IS scholars usually think of information technologies in reference to computers, deploying materialistic and social ontologies. The chapter closes by discussing the IVO concept of IT. IT is defined as part of IS as materialized in terms of tools, devices, and machines whose purpose is to manipulate data. The IS stance is appropriate for discussing ontologies of IT. In particular, discussed are ontologies of technological imperative, strategic choice (action), cognition, institution, structuration, and emerging process.

Introduction

This chapter introduces the fundamental assumption of IVO that informing agents are central to understanding organizations. Informing agents are cognitive and technological in character. Cognitive informing agents are data, knowledge, meaning, and wisdom. The term technological informing agents refers to information technologies (IT) in different states of complexity and with various functionality. Theoretically, IVO brings together the fields of information systems (IS) and of organization theory, along with elements of cognitive psychology and other relevant disciplines. The foundational assumption of IVO is new in organization theory, which typically takes an abstract approach to technology. Although the foundational assumption of IVO resonates with the mainstream thinking in the IS field, the holistic approach is rather new. In contrast, research streams within the field typically take partial approaches, emphasizing either the technological or cognitive (“information”) perspective. In this time of global uncertainty, a balanced approach to both informing agents is necessary. They constitute a nervous system of intelligent organization that is capable of coping with the uncertainty. The chapter defines and discusses the core concepts of IVO—informing agents and organization. While these concepts and relationships build on rich theoretical foundations, the IVO perspective advances theorizing. The chapter also introduces the concept of spiral of uncertainty, which suggests that new data and knowledge play more complex roles than mere reduction of uncertainty. The discussion furthermore addresses the scope of IVO and each of the particular IVO aspects (topics). These are homo informaticus, groupomatics, infostructure, infoprocesses, infoculture, infopolitics, and infoeconomics. The chapter closes by elaborating on theoretical and practical goals of IVO.

Conclusion

This chapter summarizes contributions of the Informing View of Organization (IVO) to theorizing on information systems and on organization. It also brings guidelines for using IVO in research and management. Limitations and directions for future research are outlined.

Information System Life Cycle

The main purpose of the IVO framework refers to study and management of IS. This chapter discusses the IS issues that are standard topics in study of IS (Management Information Systems and similar areas). These are IS design/development, adoption, evaluation, management, and use. These IS life cycle stages interact with IVO aspects, such as infopolitics and infoculture. Understanding this whole process rather than just a single step is necessary for effective research and management. An extensive case study is discussed to demonstrate these ideas. It is also shown how the IVO perspective can deepen teaching case studies.

Infoeconomics

The chapter discusses economics of informing or infoeconomics, which refers to costs and benefits of informing agents and to their contribution to organizational performance. Controversies questioning contributions of IT/IS to productivity (IT productivity paradox) and to competitiveness (IT commodification argument) are discussed. It is argued that new infoeconomic measurement and better management may assist in leveraging productivity gains from the microeconomic to the macroeconomic level. Several methods of assessing costs and benefits of informing agents are proposed. It is further argued that the commodification argument points correctly that IT is no longer scarce but fails to account for a management factor and still prohibitive direct costs. Assessing benefits from IT/IS is quite challenging since these usually have support roles in organizations. The assessment of benefits of data, knowledge, and information is even more challenging since it depends on familiarity and hindsight. Valuing of professional knowledge is particularly important because it mediates in creation of business information. The challenges have become more pressing with the data analytics and big data trends. However, research lags behind. It is further argued that matching costs and benefits of informing agents is usually applied to a particular IS and calculated in some form of financial returns compared with fixed and variable lump costs of IT/IS. The chapter recalls several research cases to demonstrate relationships between IVO aspects and infoeconomics. The infoprocess perspective is characterized as a reliable guide for study and management of infoeconomics. The balanced scorecard methodology suits such an analysis. The point is made on Cloud computing, framing it as a new rental methods of IS services with certain benefits and still partly opaque costs.

Groupomatics

This chapter discusses the concept of group informatics (groupomatics), which is one of the topics in the Information View of Organization (IVO). An attempt of balancing technological and cognitive issues is made, building on the idea that the IS field and small group theory can benefit from cross-pollinating their perspectives. One running theme in the chapter is the emphasis on cognitive aspects of work groups. The emphasis comes from a metaphor of intelligence applied to work group. Experimental research on Group Decision Support Systems (GDSS) has initiated this focus with study of problem solving/decision making in the 1980s, while conceptions of group intelligence were introduced much earlier. Another running theme is communication. Communication capabilities are always a function in Group Supports Systems (GSS), although they can be analytically separated. An argument for a need of a deeper engagement of communication theory is developed. Communication is to be approached beyond the convenient but limiting conduit metaphor. The chapter also addresses the theme of uncertainty and ambiguity plaguing the deployment of teamwork and GSS. Interactions between group, technology, and the social context complicate the understanding and management of GSS. Ample evidence indicates unexpected outcomes of deploying GSS. Sometimes, a GDSS may shield group perception from groupthink biases, but at other times it may not. The same applies to the quality of the brainstorming output generated via GDSS. Sometimes GDSS can help to manage conflict-ridden problem solving, while at other times a group uses its system without a productivity gain. Distributed (virtual) teams and Distributed GSS (DGSS) bring up new issues and challenges. Trust among dispersed teammates may or may not appear at random, classical management controls may bring surprising results, DGSS may be appropriated in an opportunistic rather than utilitarian fashion, and the group capabilities may compensate for shortcoming of communication technologies. Significant challenges of distributed teams engender a host of requirements for design and management of DGSS.