The labour market contradiction: a precarious form of dependence

This chapter discusses the role of the labour market, the precarious and overqualified forms of participation in the labour market widely used by young people in university to support themselves, and the role of internships and summer jobs. This chapter engages with the most recent debates on the precariat, showing that the precarious forms of jobs are not just creating a new class, but are also intersecting with the existing forms of socio-economic inequalities. This chapter discusses the use of labour market resources by each profile, showing that while some young people can selectively pick qualified labour-market participation, others need to over-rely on labour-market participation to sustain their experience in university.

Social consequences of mass access in Europe

The chapter discusses the causes and consequences of having 50% of the current European youth cohort in university. The chapter discusses the paradox behind the democratisation of higher education, which has not addressed pre-existing inequalities. While European policies have focussed on access and destination, the chapter stresses the importance of focussing on the politics of living in university. The mass expansion of higher education has resulted in a protraction of the phase of young adulthood. In this context, it is crucial to look at young people in university as individuals who live a protracted phase of semi-dependence.

Introduction: Young people’s lives at university in crisis

This chapter introduces the reality facing today’s young people in higher education in Europe. Despite being encouraged to attend university in order to obtain better and more socially inclusive lives, young people are increasingly finding that they are not receiving the previously anticipated benefits from their higher education degrees. The root cause of this rests in the HE policies implemented since the 1990’s. The author introduces the countries in which she focuses her research: England, Italy and Sweden. The author then introduces key ‘myths’ surrounding university students’ lives, including myths about who goes to university, how students transition from study to work and whether or not inequality can be addressed by increasing access to HE. The chapter concludes by laying out the structure of the rest of the book.

The family: saviour or ‘inequaliser’?

This chapter discusses the role of the family, which is a source that is present, with a different weight, in all three countries. This chapter discusses the role of inter-generational transfers: the conditioning role of family sources and the implications of its use (e.g. sense of guilt and family expectations). It also shows how and in what ways the reliance on the family represents an ‘inequaliser’ of the experience of young people, offering or limiting the opportunities of young students. The chapter discusses the use of family resources for each profile, and analyses how the reliance on family resources extends the semi-dependence of young people while in university.

The different profiles of young people’s experiences in university

This chapter discusses in what respects the different profiles of the university experience can be considered forms of inequalities. It shows that the inequality of the experience is shaped by the interplay between socio-economic backgrounds and ‘structures of welfare’ that are available to young people. The chapter describes for each profile illustrated in the previous chapter, the function of class and welfare mixes in reinforcing inequality. The chapter shows how negative experiences of young people during university arise, in particular, as a consequence of a ‘mismatch’ between the resources required during university, and what is available from the state, the family and the labour-market.

Beyond differences? Determinants of inequality among European young people in university

This chapter will show how, in spite of the different systems in place, students across Europe face increasingly similar challenges, such as the existence of precarious labour markets and the over-reliance on family resources. The chapter, firstly, discusses how the systems of student support illustrated in the previous chapter increase the existing inequalities depending on: the stratifying effects of debt; the generosity of the support provided; and the inclusiveness of student support. Secondly, it illustrates how relying on family resources can increase inequality among young people in university. Thirdly, it discusses which groups of young people are more dependent on labour-market sources while in university. This part will draw on the findings of a descriptive analysis of the microdata of the Eurostudent dataset from England, Italy and Sweden.

Conclusion: Addressing growing inequality among young people in university

This chapter begins by summarising the ways in which each of the three countries researched, Italy, England and Sweden, supports their young people in university. The chapter emphasises once more that student support is the key to tackling inequality among students at university, rather than widening access to or participation in higher education. The author then summarises the findings of the book, including the diverse experiences of students at university and the factors that cause these differences. The chapter concludes by looking to the future of young people in Europe and possible paths to change in the experience of students at university.

State: generous, conditional or absent?

This chapter discusses the role of the state, described as ‘absent’ in Italy, where the needs of students are not covered by the state; ‘conditional’ in England, where state provisions for students in university are means-tested and complemented by family resources; and ‘generous’ in Sweden, where the state plays a central role in protecting the transitions to adulthood. Secondly, this chapter discusses the use of grants and loans by young people, and the different implications associated with them. Finally, the chapter proposes a model to understand how the different forms of semi-dependence experienced by young people in university are linked to the existing systems of student support. The chapter shows that higher forms of dependence on family resources are the direct consequence of less generous forms of state support.

How welfare influences the lives of young people in university

This chapter offers an overview of how welfare influences young people’s experiences in university in England, Italy and Sweden. Firstly, this chapter will discuss how these countries reflect the existence of three different systems of student support. Secondly, the chapter will illustrate the different social policy instruments that have sustained the mass expansion of the university experience: from the wide use of loans and tuition fees, to the increasing residual role and means-testing of grants. Finally, this chapter discusses the most recent austerity trends affecting the systems of student support in Europe, which are shifting towards a privatisation (on students and their families) of the costs incurred during university.

Explaining inequality: the role of social origins and welfare sources

After having presented the results of the three-country analysis, this chapter illustrates the diversity of the young people’s experiences within each country. In order to so, the chapter presents the list of the top 10 statements which attracted most disagreement across factors within each country. The chapter shows that within each country there are sources of inequality: in England the means-tested system of student support overestimates what the family can contribute in higher education; in Italy the over-reliance on family sources results in a social reproduction of inequality; in Sweden the insufficiency of state sources means that young people from lower classes tend to work while in university, while housing conditions appear to be highly stratified.