Whose Ideology, Where, and When? Rama (Nicaragua) and Francoprovençal (France) Experiences

Fieldwork on Rama (Nicaragua) and Francoprovençal (France) has revealed ever-present and ever-changing ideological forces at work. This chapter examines how ideologies in the two different locations are essentially built in opposition to others, how they are projected onto specific types of actions, and how they are explicitly articulated by some people and then adopted and absorbed largely implicitly by others. The authors also discuss why a certain ideology is evident at a certain time, and try to trace what might be at stake for whom: communities, governments, and institutions, as well as academic linguists.

What Are We Trying to Preserve? Diversity, Change, and Ideology at the Edge of the Cameroonian Grassfields

Losses associated with language endangerment need not be restricted to individual language systems but can also involve the disappearance of distinctive language ecologies. This chapter explores the language dynamics of the Lower Fungom region of Northwest Cameroon, which offers an extreme case of linguistic diversity, from an areal and ethnographically informed perspective. Key aspects of local language ideologies are explored in detail, and it is argued that in this area languages symbolize relatively ephemeral political formations and, hence, should not be taken as reflections of deeply rooted historical identities. This conclusion has significance both regarding how research projects in the area should be structured as well as for what it might mean to ‘preserve’ the languages of a region that historically appears to have been characterized by frequent language loss and emergence, conditioned by changes in territorial and political configurations.

Must We Save the Language? Children’s Discourse on Language and Community in Provençal and Scottish Language Revitalization Movements

This chapter proposes a critical analysis of the types of discourse articulated by children involved in language revitalization programmes in two Western European contexts: Provence (south-eastern France) and southern Scotland. It focuses on how the minority language (Occitan and Scots) is described and what this means for how children categorize the language and speech communities within which they are being socialized. Of all the social actors involved in language revitalization programmes, and despite the central part they play, children are the only ones whose opinion on participation is never required. Children occupy a very ambiguous place in language revitalization movements. On the one hand, they are perceived as the embodiment of the future of the language, while, on the other hand, they are often accused of not speaking the language properly or of mixing minority and dominant languages. This seems to be a fairly widespread pattern in Europe, where ‘neo-speakers’ are generally viewed with mistrust.

Ideologies, Beliefs, and Revitalization of Guernesiais (Guernsey)

This chapter examines language ideologies in a small community (Guernsey, Channel Islands) which reflect wider issues concerning the aims and effectiveness of language-related activities. Ideologies are largely unstated yet they profoundly influence language planning and policy at both personal and public levels. Although there has been a shift over the last 30 or so years towards broadly positive overt attitudes in favour of maintenance of Guernsey’s indigenous language, it seems that ingrained covert negative attitudes linger in some sections of the community. From these observations the authors identify two main divergent trends in beliefs and ideologies concerning who has authority to speak on behalf of ‘the community’, and to make decisions regarding the future of an endangered language. The authors relate their observations to the concept of prior ideological clarification, and compare rhetoric on language maintenance and revitalization with actions and outcomes.

Reflections on the Promotion of an Endangered Language:

This chapter investigates the linguistic beliefs and ideologies of Ladin women in the Dolomites in Italy. The reasons that lead women to speak their heritage language in a progressively globalized Europe were investigated, to identify the role of ideologies about language and culture in shaping personal views. Focus groups of no more than seven women per group allowed the creation of a constructive setting where each woman could express her own ideas, which progressively evolved as other women’s opinions were heard. Life history interviews were used to investigate the ideologies of women aged 70 and over. Results suggest that reflection may lead to greater awareness of what it means to speak the ‘mother tongue’ and the consequent implications for an endangered minority language. Reflecting together makes women aware of their own skills and fosters willingness to promote their language and culture.

Fluidity in Language Beliefs:

This chapter discusses how the revitalization efforts of Kormakiti Maronite Arabic (KMA) in Cyprus may have influenced the beliefs and ideologies of the community towards its language. KMA is spoken by some members of the Kormakiti Maronite community in Cyprus, where the official languages are Greek and Turkish. However, local varieties of Greek and Turkish are used by most people in everyday communication and the use of KMA has declined, especially in terms of intergenerational transmission. The chapter begins with a sociolinguistic profile of the KMA community focusing on: (i) subjective attitudes towards KMA and its speakers, and (ii) the ethnic identity value attached to KMA. Recordings conducted since 2006, when revitalization efforts began, enabled the author to observe a slight change in some speakers’ beliefs about their language, triggered by ongoing revitalization efforts.

UN Discourse on Linguistic Diversity and Multilingualism in the 2000s:

This chapter endeavours to respond to Fishman’s appeal for ideological clarification by focusing on the often-neglected role of supranational actors (including an analysis of their own constitutive actors and processes) in shaping, diffusing, and mediating policy ideas and discourse on linguistic diversity and multilingualism. It identifies the main types of actors at the level of global governance with regard the UN System. It outlines their respective contributions in terms of ideas, and their functions in terms of processes, focusing on the interactions of these actors. In so doing, it analyses UN discourse in the early twenty-first century (where discourse is understood as language as meaningful social action) concerning multilingualism and linguistic diversity, produced through various media and in various contexts. These include: normative texts (especially in the field of human rights), position papers, reports, policy recommendations, action plans, methodological guidelines, and internet materials.

The Cost of Language Mobilization: Wangkatha Language Ideologies and Native Title

This chapter investigates the nature of ideological transformation among Wangkatha language consultants in Western Australia, highlighted in the wake of Native Title legislation designed to determine the veracity of Aboriginal claims to land rights. It identifies a schism between the actual and perceived benefits of successful claims, and explores the role of language as it is used by expert witnesses and community members. On-the-ground perceptions about how linguistic practices may be interpreted by a land claim judge influence practice and, potentially, ideology, with a transition from a dialect mesh to an ideologically bounded mosaic, from the prestige of language ownership to the power of language proficiency, and from extreme individual multilingualism to language guardianship. Proficiency in an unchanged, well-bounded traditional language is simultaneously venerated and guarded while traditional ideologies about linguistic identity are overshadowed, at least in the political and legal context.

Revitalizing the Māori Language?

This chapter looks at differing ideologies with respect to the Māori language of New Zealand, comparing what might be termed institutional ideologies with vernacular ideologies. Institutional ideologies, as defined here, are beliefs held by those employed by various government and tribal institutions to monitor, plan, and encourage the use of the Māori language. That is, institutional ideologies are the beliefs of those individuals involved with language planning. Vernacular ideologies are those beliefs held by members of the wider community, in this case, the Māori community.

Paradoxes of Engagement with Irish Language Community Management, Practice, and Ideology

Since gaining independence in 1922, the Irish Government’s pro-Irish language policy has gone through several stages of development, moving from openly coercive maintenance strategies in designated areas (Gaeltacht) and obligatory Irish-medium schooling throughout the country, to a contemporary stance where the state sees Irish speakers as customers who require services. Policy for the majority Anglophone population is now based on a heritage role for Irish. Despite the evolution of state and community policies, some early ideological stances have remained at the core of decision-making. In the first decade of the twenty-first century the state has further reassessed its positions. The power of ideologically driven state language policy has inevitably produced mismatches which may paradoxically have further endangered the future of Irish as a community language. This chapter focuses on the stance of the monolingual English-speaking minority and inactive Irish speakers in Gaeltacht regions.