The impact of social distancing on community case count in the United States: Testing the efficacy of protection motivation theory during early stages of the COVID‐19 pandemic

As of October 2020, the coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) pandemic has accounted for over 210,000 deaths in the United States. Sexual and gender minority populations are more likely to work in essential industries while bearing a disproportionate burden of the virus. Constructs consistent with Protection Motivation Theory (perceived severity, vulnerability, self-efficacy, and response efficacy) were measured using an abridged version of Kleczkowski et al.'s four-factor Protection Motivation Theory Psychological Measures to examine social distancing behaviors of these populations, 32.6% of the sample were essential workers. Greater self-efficacy predicted stricter social distancing behaviors. Nonessential and unemployed worker statuses were associated with increased odds of stricter social distancing behaviors relative to essential worker status. Essential worker status predicted lower self-efficacy. The indirect effect of essential worker status on social distancing through self-efficacy was significant. Findings suggest that interventions that encourage social distancing through enhanced self-efficacy may optimize health for sexual and gender minority essential workers.

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Diverse local epidemics reveal the distinct effects of population density, demographics, climate, depletion of susceptibles, and intervention in the first wave of COVID-19 in the United States

10.1101/2020.06.30.20143636 ◽

2020 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Niayesh Afshordi ◽

Benjamin Holder ◽

Mohammad Bahrami ◽

Daniel Lichtblau

Keyword(s):

United States ◽

Population Density ◽

The United States ◽

Effective Response ◽

Susceptible Population ◽

Local Climate ◽

Climate Conditions ◽

Mortality And Morbidity ◽

Social Distancing ◽

The Impact

The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has caused significant mortality and morbidity worldwide, sparing almost no community. As the disease will likely remain a threat for years to come, an understanding of the precise influences of human demographics and settlement, as well as the dynamic factors of climate, susceptible depletion, and intervention, on the spread of localized epidemics will be vital for mounting an effective response. We consider the entire set of local epidemics in the United States; a broad selection of demographic, population density, and climate factors; and local mobility data, tracking social distancing interventions, to determine the key factors driving the spread and containment of the virus. Assuming first a linear model for the rate of exponential growth (or decay) in cases/mortality, we find that population-weighted density, humidity, and median age dominate the dynamics of growth and decline, once interventions are accounted for. A focus on distinct metropolitan areas suggests that some locales benefited from the timing of a nearly simultaneous nationwide shutdown, and/or the regional climate conditions in mid-March; while others suffered significant outbreaks prior to intervention. Using a first-principles model of the infection spread, we then develop predictions for the impact of the relaxation of social distancing and local climate conditions. A few regions, where a significant fraction of the population was infected, show evidence that the epidemic has partially resolved via depletion of the susceptible population (i.e., “herd immunity”), while most regions in the United States remain overwhelmingly susceptible. These results will be important for optimal management of intervention strategies, which can be facilitated using our online dashboard.

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Protection motivation theory and social distancing behaviour in response to a simulated infectious disease epidemic

Psychology Health & Medicine ◽

10.1080/13548506.2015.1028946 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 20 (7) ◽

pp. 832-837 ◽

Cited By ~ 25

Author(s):

Lynn Williams ◽

Susan Rasmussen ◽

Adam Kleczkowski ◽

Savi Maharaj ◽

Nicole Cairns

Keyword(s):

Infectious Disease ◽

Protection Motivation Theory ◽

Protection Motivation ◽

Motivation Theory ◽

Social Distancing

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Socioeconomic Disparities in Social Distancing During the COVID-19 Pandemic in the United States: Observational Study (Preprint)

10.2196/preprints.24591 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Romain Garnier ◽

Jan R Benetka ◽

John Kraemer ◽

Shweta Bansal

Keyword(s):

United States ◽

Black People ◽

The United States ◽

Control Measures ◽

Mobility Patterns ◽

Poverty Level ◽

Social Distancing ◽

Mobility Data ◽

Black Populations ◽

The Impact

BACKGROUND Eliminating disparities in the burden of COVID-19 requires equitable access to control measures across socio-economic groups. Limited research on socio-economic differences in mobility hampers our ability to understand whether inequalities in social distancing are occurring during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. OBJECTIVE We aimed to assess how mobility patterns have varied across the United States during the COVID-19 pandemic and to identify associations with socioeconomic factors of populations. METHODS We used anonymized mobility data from tens of millions of devices to measure the speed and depth of social distancing at the county level in the United States between February and May 2020, the period during which social distancing was widespread in this country. Using linear mixed models, we assessed the associations between social distancing and socioeconomic variables, including the proportion of people in the population below the poverty level, the proportion of Black people, the proportion of essential workers, and the population density. RESULTS We found that the speed, depth, and duration of social distancing in the United States are heterogeneous. We particularly show that social distancing is slower and less intense in counties with higher proportions of people below the poverty level and essential workers; in contrast, we show that social distancing is intensely adopted in counties with higher population densities and larger Black populations. CONCLUSIONS Socioeconomic inequalities appear to be associated with the levels of adoption of social distancing, potentially resulting in wide-ranging differences in the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in communities across the United States. These inequalities are likely to amplify existing health disparities and must be addressed to ensure the success of ongoing pandemic mitigation efforts.

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The Effect of Countermeasure Readability on Security Intentions

Journal of Cybersecurity and Privacy ◽

10.3390/jcp1040034 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 1 (4) ◽

pp. 675-704

Author(s):

Tim Smit ◽

Max van Haastrecht ◽

Marco Spruit

Keyword(s):

Theoretical Framework ◽

Protection Motivation Theory ◽

Cyber Attacks ◽

Protection Motivation ◽

Motivation Theory ◽

Human Failure ◽

The Impact ◽

The Relationship ◽

Countermeasures Research

Human failure is a primary contributor to successful cyber attacks. For any cybersecurity initiative, it is therefore vital to motivate individuals to implement secure behavior. Research using protection motivation theory (PMT) has given insights into what motivates people to safeguard themselves in cyberspace. Recent PMT results have highlighted the central role of the coping appraisal in the cybersecurity context. In cybersecurity, we cope with threats using countermeasures. Research has shown that countermeasure awareness is a significant antecedent to all coping appraisal elements. Yet, although awareness plays a key role within the PMT framework, it is generally challenging to influence. A factor that is easy to influence is countermeasure readability. Earlier work has shown the impact of readability on understanding and that readability metrics make measuring and improving readability simple. Therefore, our research aims to clarify the relationship between countermeasure readability and security intentions. We propose an extended theoretical framework and investigate its implications using a survey. In line with related studies, results indicate that people are more likely to have favorable security intentions if they are aware of countermeasures and are confident in their ability to implement them. Crucially, the data show that countermeasure readability influences security intentions. Our results imply that cybersecurity professionals can utilize readability metrics to assess and improve the readability of countermeasure texts, providing an actionable avenue towards influencing security intentions.

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Modeling the Impact of Biometric Security on Millennials’ Protection Motivation

Journal of Organizational and End User Computing ◽

10.4018/joeuc.2013100102 ◽

2013 ◽

Vol 25 (4) ◽

pp. 27-49

Author(s):

Benjamin Ngugi ◽

Arnold Kamis

Keyword(s):

User Authentication ◽

Protection Motivation Theory ◽

System Response ◽

Protection Motivation ◽

Motivation Theory ◽

Perceived Effort ◽

Biometric Security ◽

Hypothetical Scenario ◽

System Access ◽

The Impact

Security researchers and managers would like to know the best ways of introducing new innovations and motivating their use. This study applies Protection Motivation Theory to model the coping and threat appraisals that motivate Millennials, who are early technology adopters, to adopt or resist biometric security for system access. One hundred fifty-nine Millennials were given a hypothetical scenario in which system access would be enhanced by biometric security to strengthen user authentication. The authors model the results with PLS and find that Protection Motivation Theory provides a good explanation of the user’s perceptions of biometric security. The model suggests that the users’ protection motivation is influenced directly by the Perceived System Response Efficacy of the biometric system and indirectly by Perceived Effort Expectancy, Perceived Computer Self-Efficacy, Perceived Privacy Invasion and Perceived System Vulnerability. Implications and limitations of the model are discussed.

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Review of social media intervention in adult population during COVID-19 pandemic based on Protection Motivation Theory

International Journal of Public Health Science (IJPHS) ◽

10.11591/ijphs.v10i4.20510 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 10 (4) ◽

pp. 843

Author(s):

Muhammad Prima Cakra Randana ◽

Rizma Adlia Syakurah

Keyword(s):

Social Media ◽

Adult Population ◽

Behavioral Responses ◽

Protection Motivation Theory ◽

Protection Motivation ◽

Motivation Theory ◽

Negative Consequences ◽

Perceived Severity ◽

Media Intervention ◽

The Impact

During COVID-19 pandemic, social media has become a basis for information deployment, it has the potential to change people opinion and solve many issues in this situation. Based on Protection Motivation Theory (PMT), threat and coping appraisal were predictors to behavioral responses in pandemics. This study aimed to analyze the impact of social media intervention in adult population during COVID-19 pandemic based on PMT. This review was created using Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) and data collection from electronic databases such as Pubmed, Mendeley app, Europe PMC, Cochrane Databases, Science Direct, and Wiley Online Library. Inclusion criteria consists of English studies, studies related to the topic and match with required variables. There are five cross-sectional studies involving a total of 2.448 participants that were published in 2020. Among all categories based on included studied, it was shown that cyberchondria, perceived severity and perceived vulnerability are predictors in social media, related to behavioral responses during COVID-19 pandemic. Reducing information overload, related to cyberchondria, via the clear structuring and communication of reliable health information is needed. Hence, educating people on responsible and healthy social media use could help alleviate the observed negative consequences from perceived severity and vulnerability.

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Increasing Intention to Reduce Fossil Fuel Consumption: A Protection Motivation Theory Based Experimental Study

10.31234/osf.io/zcp6j ◽

2019 ◽

Author(s):

Emily Jane Kothe ◽

Mathew Ling ◽

Barbara Mullan ◽

Anna Klas

Keyword(s):

Climate Change ◽

Experimental Study ◽

Self Efficacy ◽

Fossil Fuel ◽

Protection Motivation Theory ◽

Control Group ◽

Protection Motivation ◽

Motivation Theory ◽

Fuel Use ◽

The Impact

Reducing individual fossil fuel use is an important component of climate change mitigation, but motivating behaviour change to achieve this is difficult. This experimental study tests the impact of Protection Motivation Theory based messages on intention to reduce fossil fuel use in 3803 US adults recruited via Amazon MTurk (mean age = 36.11 years; 51.4% female). Only messages targeting self-efficacy and response efficacy increased intention to reduce fossil fuel use relative to the control group. However, only the self-efficacy message had an impact on its corresponding construct, highlighting the importance of manipulation checks in model testing. Given the urgency of responding to climate change, the potential for additive benefits of effective messages should be considered irrespective of their underlying psychological mechanism. Study preregistration: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/2G6BQ. Data related to this manuscript: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/2TRBK.

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Socio-economic disparities in social distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States

10.1101/2020.11.07.20201335 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Romain Garnier ◽

Jan R. Benetka ◽

John Kraemer ◽

Shweta Bansal

Keyword(s):

United States ◽

Black People ◽

The United States ◽

Control Measures ◽

Mobility Patterns ◽

Poverty Level ◽

Social Distancing ◽

Mobility Data ◽

Black Populations ◽

The Impact

AbstractImportanceEliminating disparities in the burden of COVID-19 requires equitable access to control measures across socio-economic groups. Limited research on socio-economic differences in mobility hampers our ability to understand whether inequalities in social distancing are occurring during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic.ObjectiveTo assess how mobility patterns have varied across the United States during the COVID-19 pandemic, and identify associations with socio-economic factors of populations.Design, Setting, and ParticipantsWe used anonymized mobility data from tens of millions of devices to measure the speed and depth of social distancing at the county level between February and May 2020. Using linear mixed models, we assessed the associations between social distancing and socio-economic variables, including the proportion of people below the poverty level, the proportion of Black people, the proportion of essential workers, and the population density.Main outcomes and ResultsWe find that the speed, depth, and duration of social distancing in the United States is heterogeneous. We particularly show that social distancing is slower and less intense in counties with higher proportions of people below the poverty level and essential workers; and in contrast, that social distancing is intense in counties with higher population densities and larger Black populations.Conclusions and relevanceSocio-economic inequalities appear to be associated with the levels of adoption of social distancing, potentially resulting in wide-ranging differences in the impact of COVID-19 in communities across the United States. This is likely to amplify existing health disparities, and needs to be addressed to ensure the success of ongoing pandemic mitigation efforts.

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