Cognitive Processes and Eye-Tracking Methodology

ABSTRACT Recent advances in technology have increased the accessibility and ease in using eye-tracking as a research tool. These advances have the potential to benefit behavioral accounting researchers' understanding of the cognitive processes underlying individuals' judgments, decisions, and behaviors. However, despite its potential and wide use in other disciplines, few behavioral accounting studies use eye-tracking. The purpose of this paper is to familiarize accounting researchers with eye-tracking, including its advantages and limitations as a research tool. We start by providing an overview of eye-tracking and discussing essential terms and useful metrics, as well as the psychological constructs they proxy. We then summarize eye-tracking research across research domains, review accounting studies that use eye-tracking, and identify future research directions across accounting topics. Finally, we provide an instructional resource to guide those researchers interested in using eye-tracking, including important considerations at each stage of the study. JEL Classifications: M41; C91.

Download Full-text

Effects of age on memory for pragmatic implications in advertising

Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology ◽

10.1177/18344909211000452 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 15 ◽

pp. 183449092110004

Author(s):

Jing Yu ◽

Xue-Rui Peng ◽

Ming Yan

Keyword(s):

Older Adults ◽

Eye Tracking ◽

Cognitive Processes ◽

Time Processing ◽

Movement Data ◽

Processing Strategies ◽

Health Related ◽

Advertising Content ◽

Inferential Processing ◽

Tracking Technology

People employ automatic inferential processing when confronting pragmatically implied claims in advertising. However, whether comprehension and memorization of pragmatic implications differ between young and older adults is unclear. In the present study, we used eye-tracking technology to investigate online cognitive processes during reading of misleading advertisements. We found an interaction between age and advertising content, manifested as our older participants generated higher misleading rates in health-related than in health-irrelevant products, whereas this content-bias did not appear in their younger counterparts. Eye movement data further showed that the older adults spent more time processing critical claims for the health-related products than for the health-irrelevant products. Moreover, the correlations between fixation duration on pragmatic implications and misleading rates showed opposite trends in the two groups. The eye-tracking evidence novelly suggests that young and older adults may adopt different information processing strategies to comprehend pragmatic implications in advertising: More reading possibly enhances young adults’ gist memory whereas it facilitates older adults’ verbatim memory instead.

Download Full-text

Eye Tracking to Acquire Insight Into the Cognitive Processes of Clinicians

Simulation in Healthcare The Journal of the Society for Simulation in Healthcare ◽

10.1097/sih.0000000000000116 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 10 (5) ◽

pp. 329-330 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Marjorie P. Stiegler ◽

David M. Gaba

Keyword(s):

Eye Tracking ◽

Cognitive Processes ◽

Insight Into

Download Full-text

Multimodality with Eye tracking and Haptics: A New Horizon for Serious Games?

International Journal of Serious Games ◽

10.17083/ijsg.v1i4.24 ◽

2014 ◽

Vol 1 (4) ◽

Cited By ~ 11

Author(s):

Shujie Deng ◽

Julie A. Kirkby ◽

Jian Chang ◽

Jian Jun Zhang

Keyword(s):

Virtual Reality ◽

Eye Tracking ◽

Virtual Environments ◽

Cognitive Processes ◽

Serious Games ◽

Haptic Feedback ◽

Current Understanding ◽

Immersive Virtual Environments ◽

New Applications ◽

And Training

The goal of this review is to illustrate the emerging use of multimodal virtual reality that can benefit learning-based games. The review begins with an introduction to multimodal virtual reality in serious games and we provide a brief discussion of why cognitive processes involved in learning and training are enhanced under immersive virtual environments. We initially outline studies that have used eye tracking and haptic feedback independently in serious games, and then review some innovative applications that have already combined eye tracking and haptic devices in order to provide applicable multimodal frameworks for learning-based games. Finally, some general conclusions are identified and clarified in order to advance current understanding in multimodal serious game production as well as exploring possible areas for new applications.

Download Full-text

Identifying Expert and Novice Visual Scanpath Patterns and Their Relationship to Assessing Learning-Relevant Student Characteristics

Frontiers in Education ◽

10.3389/feduc.2020.612175 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 5 ◽

Author(s):

Christian Kosel ◽

Doris Holzberger ◽

Tina Seidel

Keyword(s):

Eye Tracking ◽

Eye Movement ◽

Cognitive Processes ◽

Student Characteristics ◽

Visual Behavior ◽

Judgment Accuracy ◽

Gaze Patterns ◽

Expert And Novice ◽

Visual Scanpath ◽

Classroom Lesson

The paper addresses cognitive processes during a teacher's professional task of assessing learning-relevant student characteristics. We explore how eye-movement patterns (scanpaths) differ across expert and novice teachers during an assessment situation. In an eye-tracking experiment, participants watched an authentic video of a classroom lesson and were subsequently asked to assess five different students. Instead of using typically reported averaged gaze data (e.g., number of fixations), we used gaze patterns as an indicator for visual behavior. We extracted scanpath patterns, compared them qualitatively (common sub-pattern) and quantitatively (scanpath entropy) between experts and novices, and related teachers' visual behavior to their assessment competence. Results show that teachers' scanpaths were idiosyncratic and more similar to teachers of the same expertise group. Moreover, experts monitored all target students more regularly and made recurring scans to re-adjust their assessment. Lastly, this behavior was quantified using Shannon's entropy score. Results indicate that experts' scanpaths were more complex, involved more frequent revisits of all students, and that experts transferred their attention between all students with equal probability. Experts' visual behavior was also statistically related to higher judgment accuracy.

Download Full-text

Exploring the Process of Reading During Writing Using Eye Tracking and Keystroke Logging

Written Communication ◽

10.1177/0741088318788070 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 35 (4) ◽

pp. 411-447 ◽

Cited By ~ 3

Author(s):

Milou J. R. de Smet ◽

Mariëlle Leijten ◽

Luuk Van Waes

Keyword(s):

Eye Tracking ◽

Cognitive Processes ◽

Professional Communication ◽

Time On Task ◽

Eye Tracker ◽

Process Data ◽

Reading Behavior ◽

Technical Procedure ◽

Text Production ◽

Correct Spelling

This study aims to explore the process of reading during writing. More specifically, it investigates whether a combination of keystroke logging data and eye tracking data yields a better understanding of cognitive processes underlying fluent and nonfluent text production. First, a technical procedure describes how writing process data from the keystroke logging program Inputlog are merged with reading process data from the Tobii TX300 eye tracker. Next, a theoretical schema on reading during writing is presented, which served as a basis for the observation context we created for our experiment. This schema was tested by observing 24 university students in professional communication (skilled writers) who typed short sentences that were manipulated to elicit fluent or nonfluent writing. The experimental sentences were organized into four different conditions, aiming at (a) fluent writing, (b) reflection about correct spelling of homophone verbs, (c) local revision, and (d) global revision. Results showed that it is possible to manipulate degrees of nonfluent writing in terms of time on task and percentage of nonfluent key transitions. However, reading behavior was affected only for the conditions that explicitly required revision. This suggests that nonfluent writing does not always affect the reading behavior, supporting the parallel and cascading processing hypothesis.

Download Full-text

Impact of Think-Aloud on Eye-Tracking: A Comparison of Concurrent and Retrospective Think-Aloud for Research on Decision-Making in the Game Environment

Sensors ◽

10.3390/s20102750 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 20 (10) ◽

pp. 2750 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Michal Prokop ◽

Ladislav Pilař ◽

Ivana Tichá

Keyword(s):

Decision Making ◽

Eye Tracking ◽

Cognitive Processes ◽

Simulation Game ◽

Think Aloud ◽

Managerial Decision ◽

Complex Processes ◽

Combined Use ◽

Methodological Procedures ◽

Game Environment

Simulations and games bring the possibility to research complex processes of managerial decision-making. However, this modern field requires adequate methodological procedures. Many authors recommend the use of a combination of concurrent think-aloud (CTA) or retrospective think-aloud (RTA) with eye-tracking to investigate cognitive processes such as decision-making. Nevertheless, previous studies have little or no consideration of the possible differential impact of both think-aloud methods on data provided by eye-tracking. Therefore, the main aim of this study is to compare and assess if and how these methods differ in terms of their impact on eye-tracking. The experiment was conducted for this purpose. Participants were 14 managers who played a specific simulation game with CTA use and 17 managers who played the same game with RTA use. The results empirically prove that CTA significantly distorts data provided by eye-tracking, whereas data gathered when RTA is used, provide independent pieces of evidence about the participants’ behavior. These findings suggest that RTA is more suitable for combined use with eye-tracking for the purpose of the research of decision-making in the game environment.

Download Full-text

Using eye-tracking technology to investigate the redundant effect of multimedia web pages on viewers’ cognitive processes

Computers in Human Behavior ◽

10.1016/j.chb.2011.06.012 ◽

2011 ◽

Vol 27 (6) ◽

pp. 2410-2417 ◽

Cited By ~ 58

Author(s):

Han-Chin Liu ◽

Meng-Lung Lai ◽

Hsueh-Hua Chuang

Keyword(s):

Eye Tracking ◽

Cognitive Processes ◽

Web Pages ◽

Tracking Technology

Download Full-text

Gaze and eye movement in dialogue interpreting: An eye-tracking study

Bilingualism Language and Cognition ◽

10.1017/s1366728920000309 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 23 (4) ◽

pp. 780-787 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Elisabet Tiselius ◽

Kayle Sneed

Keyword(s):

Eye Tracking ◽

Cognitive Load ◽

Eye Movement ◽

Cognitive Processes ◽

Cognitive Effort ◽

Simultaneous Interpreting ◽

Gaze Patterns ◽

Averted Gaze

AbstractPrevious studies have investigated the cognitive processes of simultaneous interpreting and translation using eye-tracking. No study has yet utilized eye-tracking to investigate cognitive load and cognitive effort in dialogue interpreting. An eye-tracking study was conducted on two groups of interpreters (experienced and inexperienced) with varying language backgrounds during a staged dialogue interpreting session. The aim of the study was to explore gaze patterns in dialogue interpreting in relation to the interpreters’ action and translation direction. The results indicated there were differences in gaze patterns depending on the action and the language used. Participants averted gaze more when interpreting into the allophone language (the L2 for a majority of the participants in this study). This may indicate that interpreting into L2 in a dialogue may involve more cognitive effort than interpreting into L1. Finally, gaze patterns did not differ significantly between inexperienced and experienced dialogue interpreters.

Download Full-text

Research on Generating an Indoor Landmark Salience Model for Self-Location and Spatial Orientation from Eye-Tracking Data

ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information ◽

10.3390/ijgi9020097 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 9 (2) ◽

pp. 97

Author(s):

Chengshun Wang ◽

Yufen Chen ◽

Shulei Zheng ◽

Yecheng Yuan ◽

Shuang Wang

Keyword(s):

Eye Tracking ◽

Cognitive Processes ◽

Spatial Orientation ◽

Tracking Data ◽

Least Squares Regression ◽

Cognitive Behaviors ◽

Modelling Method ◽

Model Finding ◽

Weighting Methods ◽

Landmark Salience

Landmarks play an essential role in wayfinding and are closely related to cognitive processes. Eye-tracking data contain massive amounts of information that can be applied to discover the cognitive behaviors during wayfinding; however, little attention has been paid to applying such data to calculating landmark salience models. This study proposes a method for constructing an indoor landmark salience model based on eye-tracking data. First, eye-tracking data are taken to calculate landmark salience for self-location and spatial orientation tasks through partial least squares regression (PLSR). Then, indoor landmark salience attractiveness (visual, semantic and structural) is selected and trained by landmark salience based on the eye-tracking data. Lastly, the indoor landmark salience model is generated by landmark salience attractiveness. Recruiting 32 participants, we designed a laboratory eye-tracking experiment to construct and test the model. Finding 1 proves that our eye-tracking data-based modelling method is more accurate than current weighting methods. Finding 2 shows that significant differences in landmark salience occur between two tasks; thus, it is necessary to generate a landmark salience model for different tasks. Our results can contribute to providing indoor maps for different tasks.

Download Full-text