scholarly journals Decomposition of carbon adsorbed on iron (III)-treated clays and their effect on the stability of soil organic carbon and external carbon inputs

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mengyang You ◽  
Xia Zhu-Barker ◽  
Timothy A. Doane ◽  
William R. Horwath
Keyword(s):  
Organic Carbon ◽  
Layer Structure ◽  
Mineral Soil ◽  
Clay Mineralogy ◽  
Plant Residue ◽  
C Mineralization ◽  
Organic C ◽  
Soil C ◽  
Native Soil ◽  
The Stability

AbstractThe interaction of organic carbon (OC) with clay and metals stabilizes soil carbon (C), but the influence of specific clay-metal-OC assemblages (flocs) needs further evaluation. This study aimed to investigate the stability of flocs in soil as affected by external C inputs. Flocs representing OC-mineral soil fractions were synthesized using dissolved organic C (DOC) combined with kaolinite (1:1 layer structure) or montmorillonite (2:1 layer structure) clays in the absence or presence of two levels of Fe (III) (named low or high Fe). Flocs were mixed with soil (classified as Luvisol) and incubated with or without 13C labelled plant residue (i.e., ryegrass) for 30 days. The CO2 emissions and DOC concentrations as well as their 13C signatures from all treatments were examined. Total C mineralization from flocs was approximately 70% lower than non-flocced DOC. The flocs made with montmorillonite had 16–43% lower C mineralization rate than those made with kaolinite with no Fe or low Fe. However, when flocs were made with high Fe, clay mineralogy did not significantly affect total C mineralization. A positive priming effect (PE) of flocs on native soil OC was observed in all treatments, with a stronger PE found in lower Fe treatments. The high-Fe clay flocs inhibited ryegrass decomposition, while the flocs made without clay had no impact on it. Interestingly, flocs significantly decreased the PE of ryegrass on native soil OC decomposition. These results indicate that the adsorption of DOC onto clay minerals in the presence of Fe (III) stabilizes it against decomposition processes and its stability increases as Fe in flocs increases. Flocs also protect soil OC from the PE of external degradable plant C input. This study showed that Fe level and clay mineralogy play an important role in controlling soil C stability.

scholarly journals Decomposition of Carbon Adsorbed on Iron (III)-Treated Clays and Their Effect on the Stability of Soil Organic Carbon and External Carbon Inputs

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mengyang You ◽  
Xia Zhu-Barker ◽  
Timothy A. Doane ◽  
William R. Horwath
Keyword(s):  
Organic Carbon ◽  
Layer Structure ◽  
Mineral Soil ◽  
Clay Mineralogy ◽  
C Mineralization ◽  
Organic C ◽  
Soil C ◽  
Native Soil ◽  
Decomposition Processes ◽  
The Stability

Abstract The interaction of organic carbon (OC) with clay and metals stabilizes soil carbon (C), but the influence of specific clay-metal-OC assemblages (flocs) needs further evaluation. Clay-metal-OC assemblages representing OC-mineral soil fractions were synthesized using dissolved organic C (DOC) combined with kaolinite (1:1 layer structure) or montmorillonite (2:1 layer structure) clays in the absence or presence of two levels of Fe (III). Flocs were mixed with soil and incubated for 30 days. Total C mineralization from flocs was approximately 70% lower than non-flocced DOC. The flocs made with montmorillonite had 16–43% lower C mineralization rate than those made with kaolinite with no Fe or low Fe. However, when flocs were made with high Fe, clay mineralogy did not significantly affect total C mineralization. A positive priming effect (PE) of flocs on native soil OC was observed in all treatments, with a stronger PE found in lower Fe treatments. The high-Fe clay flocs inhibited ryegrass decomposition, while the flocs made without clay had no impact on it. Interestingly, flocs significantly decreased the PE of ryegrass on native soil OC decomposition. These results indicate that the adsorption of DOC onto clay minerals in the presence of Fe (III) stabilizes it against decomposition processes and its stability increases as Fe in flocs increases. Flocs also protect soil OC from the PE of external degradable plant C input. This study showed that Fe level and clay mineralogy play an important role in controlling soil C stability.

scholarly journals Fate of rice shoot and root residues, rhizodeposits, and microbe-assimilated carbon in paddy soil: I. Decomposition and priming effect

2016 ◽  
Author(s):  
Zhenke Zhu ◽  
Guanjun Zeng ◽  
Tida Ge ◽  
Yajun Hu ◽  
Chengli Tong ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Organic Carbon ◽  
Soil Organic Carbon ◽  
Priming Effect ◽  
Paddy Soils ◽  
Ch4 Emission ◽  
Untreated Soil ◽  
Organic C ◽  
Soil C ◽  
Rice Roots ◽  
Native Soil

Abstract. The input of recently photosynthesized C has significant implications on soil organic carbon sequestration, and in paddy soils, both plants and soil microbes contribute to the overall C input. In the present study, we investigated the fate and priming effect of organic C from different sources by conducting a 300-d incubation study with four different 13C-labelled substrates: rice shoots (Shoot-C), rice roots (Root-C), rice rhizodeposits (Rhizo-C), and microbe-assimilated C (Micro-C). The efflux of both 13CO2 and 13CH4 indicated that the mineralization of C in Shoot-C-, Root-C-, Rhizo-C-, and Micro-C-treated soils rapidly increased at the beginning of the incubation and then decreased gradually afterwards. In addition, the highest level of C mineralization was observed in Root-C-treated soil (45.4 %), followed by Shoot-C- (31.9 %), Rhizo-C- (7.9 %), and Micro-C-treated (7.7 %) soils, which corresponded with mean residence times of 33.4, 46.1, 62.9, and 192 d, respectively. Furthermore, the cumulative mineralization of native soil organic carbon in Shoot-C-treated soils was 1.48- fold higher than in untreated soils, and the priming effect of Shoot-C on CO2 and CH4 emission was strongly positive over the entire incubation. However, Root-C failed to exhibit a significant priming effect, which suggests that it could potentially be used to mitigate CH4 emission. Although the total C contents of Rhizo-C- (1.89 %) and Micro-C-treated soils (1.9 %) were higher than those of untreated soil (1.8 %), no significant differences in total C emissions were observed. However, the 13C emissions of Rhizo-C- and Micro-C-treated soils gradually increased over the entire incubation period, which indicated that soil organic C-derived emissions were lower in Rhizo-C- and Micro-C-treated soils than in untreated soil, and that rhizodeposits and microbe-assimilated C could be used to reduce the mineralization of native soil organic carbon and to effectively improve soil C sequestration. The contrasting behaviours of the different photosynthesized C substrates suggests that recycling rice roots in paddies is more beneficial than recycling shoots and reveals the importance of increasing rhizodeposits and microbe-assimilated C in paddy soils via nutrient management.

scholarly journals Pedogenic, mineralogical and land-use controls on organic carbon stabilization in two contrasting soils

2010 ◽  
Vol 90 (1) ◽  
pp. 15-26 ◽  
Author(s):  
A F Plante ◽  
I. Virto ◽  
S S Malhi
Keyword(s):  
Thermal Analysis ◽  
Organic Carbon ◽  
Clay Mineralogy ◽  
Density Fractionation ◽  
Scanning Calorimetry ◽  
Organic C ◽  
Soil C ◽  
Density Fractions

Organo-mineral complexation in soils is strongly controlled by pedogenesis, but the mechanisms controlling it and its interaction with cultivation are not yet well understood. We compared the mineralogy and quality of organic carbon (C) among organo-mineral fractions from two soils with contrasting pedogenic origin. Sequential density fractionation (SDF; using 1.6, 1.8, 2.1, 2.4 and 2.6 g mL-1 sodium polytungstate solutions) followed by thermal analysis was applied to a Chernozem from Ellerslie, Alberta, and a Luvisol from Breton, Alberta, each under native and cultivated land uses. Similar clay mineralogy suggested that pedogenic controls on organic C stabilization were related to long-term vegetation cover. In addition to large differences in total organic C quantities, bulk soil and isolated fractions showed significant differences in organic C quality. Samples under native vegetation revealed greater organo-mineral complexation at Ellerslie compared with Breton, as expressed by less solubilisation, more organic C recovered in intermediate-density fractions, and exothermic differential scanning calorimetry peak signals associated with more stable forms of organic C. Long-term cultivation resulted in an overall shift to more stable organo-mineral complexes. The proportion of soil C in the 2.1-2.4 g mL-1 fraction increased under cultivation from 21 to 32% in Breton samples, and from 6 to 16% in Ellerslie samples. The quality of inherited pedogenic soil organic C stored in a soil thus appears to determine its response to long-term cultivation.Key words: Cultivation, sequential density fractionation, organic carbon, organic matter, thermal analysis

scholarly journals Is the content and potential preservation of soil organic carbon reflected by cation exchange capacity? A case study in Swiss forest soils

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Emily F. Solly ◽  
Valentino Weber ◽  
Stephan Zimmermann ◽  
Lorenz Walthert ◽  
Frank Hagedorn ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Organic Carbon ◽  
Environmental Variables ◽  
Cation Exchange Capacity ◽  
Mineral Soil ◽  
Exchange Capacity ◽  
Mean Annual Precipitation ◽  
Organic C ◽  
Soil C ◽  
Response Variance

Abstract. The content of organic carbon (C) in soils is not stable, but depends on a number of environmental variables and biogeochemical processes that actively regulate its balance. An improved identification of the environmental variables that can be used as predictors of soil organic C (SOC) content is needed to reduce uncertainties of how the soil C reservoir will respond to environmental change. Although several simulations rely on the amount of clay to reproduce changes in the balance of SOC, recent efforts have suggested that other soil physicochemical properties may serve as better predictors. Here we tested whether the effective cation exchange capacity (CEC eff.), may be a more suitable predictor of the content and potential preservation of SOC as compared to the mere quantification of clay-size particles. We further assessed how various climatic, vegetation and edaphic variables explain the variance of SOC content across different soil depths and soil pH classes. A set of more than 1000 forest sites across Switzerland, spanning a unique gradient of mean annual precipitation (636–2484 mm), altitude (277–2207 m a.s.l), pH (2.8–8.1) and representing different geologies and soil orders was used as a case study for this linear model analysis. Our results showed that CEC eff. has the largest explanatory potential of SOC content (35 % of response variance in the complete mineral soil profile) as compared to the amount of clay (which only explained 7 % of the response variance in the complete mineral soil profile) and other environmental variables. CEC eff. is strongly linked to SOC especially in the top mineral soil (0–30 cm depth) with the larger presence of organic matter. At deeper soil depths most of the variance in SOC is instead explained by climate, which in Switzerland is related to a greater weathering activity and translocation of organic C through leaching with increasing mean annual precipitation. We further observed soil pH to have a complex influence on SOC content, with CEC eff. being a dominant variable controlling SOC content at pH > 4.5 in the upper mineral soil and pH > 6 in the subsoil. Since CEC eff. is an edaphic property which is intimately associated to both the conditions that shaped the soil and the current edaphic physicochemical conditions, these findings indicate that considering CEC eff. as an integrative proxy for the potential preservation of SOC and its alteration could improve future predictions of how the soil C reservoir will feed back to environmental change.

scholarly journals Boreal-forest soil chemistry drives soil organic carbon bioreactivity along a 314-year fire chronosequence

SOIL ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 6 (1) ◽  
pp. 195-213
Author(s):  
Benjamin Andrieux ◽  
David Paré ◽  
Julien Beguin ◽  
Pierre Grondin ◽  
Yves Bergeron
Keyword(s):  
Organic Carbon ◽  
Indirect Effect ◽  
Soil Chemistry ◽  
Mineral Soil ◽  
Chemical Properties ◽  
Soil C ◽  
C Pools ◽  
Time Since Fire ◽  
C Stock

Abstract. Following a wildfire, organic carbon (C) accumulates in boreal-forest soils. The long-term patterns of accumulation as well as the mechanisms responsible for continuous soil C stabilization or sequestration are poorly known. We evaluated post-fire C stock changes in functional reservoirs (bioreactive and recalcitrant) using the proportion of C mineralized in CO2 by microbes in a long-term lab incubation, as well as the proportion of C resistant to acid hydrolysis. We found that all soil C pools increased linearly with the time since fire. The bioreactive and acid-insoluble soil C pools increased at a rate of 0.02 and 0.12 MgC ha−1 yr−1, respectively, and their proportions relative to total soil C stock remained constant with the time since fire (8 % and 46 %, respectively). We quantified direct and indirect causal relationships among variables and C bioreactivity to disentangle the relative contribution of climate, moss dominance, soil particle size distribution and soil chemical properties (pH, exchangeable manganese and aluminum, and metal oxides) to the variation structure of in vitro soil C bioreactivity. Our analyses showed that the chemical properties of podzolic soils that characterize the study area were the best predictors of soil C bioreactivity. For the O layer, pH and exchangeable manganese were the most important (model-averaged estimator for both of 0.34) factors directly related to soil organic C bioreactivity, followed by the time since fire (0.24), moss dominance (0.08), and climate and texture (0 for both). For the mineral soil, exchangeable aluminum was the most important factor (model-averaged estimator of −0.32), followed by metal oxide (−0.27), pH (−0.25), the time since fire (0.05), climate and texture (∼0 for both). Of the four climate factors examined in this study (i.e., mean annual temperature, growing degree-days above 5 ∘C, mean annual precipitation and water balance) only those related to water availability – and not to temperature – had an indirect effect (O layer) or a marginal indirect effect (mineral soil) on soil C bioreactivity. Given that predictions of the impact of climate change on soil C balance are strongly linked to the size and the bioreactivity of soil C pools, our study stresses the need to include the direct effects of soil chemistry and the indirect effects of climate and soil texture on soil organic matter decomposition in Earth system models to forecast the response of boreal soils to global warming.

Douglas-fir soil C and N properties a decade after termination of urea fertilization

2001 ◽  
Vol 31 (12) ◽  
pp. 2225-2236 ◽  
Author(s):  
Peter S Homann ◽  
Bruce A Caldwell ◽  
H N Chappell ◽  
Phillip Sollins ◽  
Chris W Swanston
Keyword(s):  
Mineral Soil ◽  
Cellulase Activity ◽  
Douglas Fir ◽  
Soil Organic C ◽  
Total N ◽  
Organic C ◽  
Soil C ◽  
Second Growth ◽  
Heavy Fractions ◽  
Urea Fertilization

Chemical and microbial soil properties were assessed in paired unfertilized and urea fertilized (>89 g N·m–2) plots in 13 second-growth Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) stands distributed throughout western Washington and Oregon. A decade following the termination of fertilization, fertilized plots averaged 28% higher total N in the O layer than unfertilized plots, 24% higher total N in surface (0–5 cm) mineral soil, and up to four times the amount of extractable ammonium and nitrate. Decreased pH (0.2 pH units) caused by fertilization may have been due to nitrification or enhanced cation uptake. In some soil layers, fertilization decreased cellulase activity and soil respiration but increased wood decomposition. There was no effect of fertilization on concentrations of light and heavy fractions, labile carbohydrates, and phosphatase and xylanase activities. No increase in soil organic C was detected, although variability precluded observing an increase of less than ~15%. Lack of a regionwide fertilization influence on soil organic C contrasts with several site-specific forest and agricultural studies that have shown C increases resulting from fertilization. Overall, the results indicate a substantial residual influence on soil N a decade after urea fertilization but much more limited influence on soil C processes and pools.

Estimates of soil organic carbon stocks in central Canada using three different approaches

2002 ◽  
Vol 32 (5) ◽  
pp. 805-812 ◽  
Author(s):  
J S Bhatti ◽  
M J Apps ◽  
C Tarnocai
Keyword(s):  
Surface Layer ◽  
Organic Carbon ◽  
Soil Organic Carbon ◽  
Soil Carbon ◽  
Soil Depth ◽  
Peat Soil ◽  
Regression Line ◽  
Organic C ◽  
Soil C ◽  
Total Soil

This study compared three estimates of carbon (C) contained both in the surface layer (0–30 cm) and the total soil pools at polygon and regional scales and the spatial distribution in the three prairie provinces of western Canada (Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba). The soil C estimates were based on data from (i) analysis of pedon data from both the Boreal Forest Transect Case Study (BFTCS) area and from a national-scale soil profile database; (ii) the Canadian Soil Organic Carbon Database (CSOCD), which uses expert estimation based on soil characteristics; and (iii) model simulations with the Carbon Budget Model of the Canadian Forest Sector (CBM-CFS2). At the polygon scale, good agreement was found between the CSOCD and pedon (the first method) total soil carbon values. Slightly higher total soil carbon values obtained from BFTCS averaged pedon data (the first method), as indicated by the slope of the regression line, may be related to micro- and meso-scale geomorphic and microclimate influences that are not accounted for in the CSOCD. Regional estimates of organic C from these three approaches for upland forest soils ranged from 1.4 to 7.7 kg C·m–2 for the surface layer and 6.2 to 27.4 kg C·m–2 for the total soil. In general, the CBM-CFS2 simulated higher soil C content compared with the field observed and CSOCD soil C estimates, but showed similar patterns in the total soil C content for the different regions. The higher soil C content simulated with CBM-CFS2 arises in part because the modelled results include forest floor detritus pool components (such as coarse woody debris, which account for 4–12% of the total soil pool in the region) that are not included in the other estimates. The comparison between the simulated values (the third method) and the values obtained from the two empirical approaches (the first two methods) provided an independent test of CBM-CFS2 soil simulations for upland forests soils. The CSOCD yielded significantly higher C content for peatland soils than for upland soils, ranging from 14.6 to 28 kg C·m–2 for the surface layer and 60 to 181 kg C·m–2 for the total peat soil depth. All three approaches indicated higher soil carbon content in the boreal zone than in other regions (subarctic, grassland).

scholarly journals Effects of free atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> enrichment (FACE), N fertilization and poplar genotype on the physical protection of carbon in the mineral soil of a polar plantation after five years

2006 ◽  
Vol 3 (4) ◽  
pp. 479-487 ◽  
Author(s):  
M. R. Hoosbeek ◽  
J. M. Vos ◽  
E. J. Bakker ◽  
G. E. Scarascia-Mugnozza
Keyword(s):  
Organic Matter ◽  
Net Primary Production ◽  
Mineral Soil ◽  
Co2 Enrichment ◽  
N Fertilization ◽  
Soil C ◽  
C Storage ◽  
Short Rotation ◽  
The Stability ◽  
Choice Of Species

Abstract. Free air CO2 enrichment (FACE) experiments in aggrading forests and plantations have demonstrated significant increases in net primary production (NPP) and C storage in forest vegetation. The extra C uptake may also be stored in forest floor litter and in forest soil. After five years of FACE treatment at the EuroFACE short rotation poplar plantation, the increase of total soil C% was larger under elevated than under ambient CO2. However, the fate of this additional C allocated belowground remains unclear. The stability of soil organic matter is controlled by the chemical structure of the organic matter and the formation of micro-aggregates (within macro-aggregates) in which organic matter is stabilized and protected. FACE and N-fertilization treatment did not affect the micro- and macro-aggregate weight, C or N fractions obtained by wet sieving. However, Populus euramericana increased the small macro-aggregate and free micro-aggregate weight and C fractions. The obtained macro-aggregates were broken up in order to isolate recently formed micro-aggregates within macro-aggregates (iM-micro-aggregates). FACE increased the iM-micro-aggregate weight and C fractions, although not significantly. This study reveals that FACE did not affect the formation of aggregates. We did, however, observe a trend of increased stabilization and protection of soil C in micro-aggregates formed within macro-aggregates under FACE. Moreover, the largest effect on aggregate formation was due to differences in species, i.e. poplar genotype. P. euramericana increased the formation of free micro-aggregates which means that more newly incorporated soil C was stabilized and protected. The choice of species in a plantation, or the effect of global change on species diversity, may therefore affect the stabilization and protection of C in soils.

A review of sampling designs for the measurement of soil organic carbon in Australian grazing lands

2010 ◽  
Vol 32 (2) ◽  
pp. 227 ◽  
Author(s):  
D. E. Allen ◽  
M. J. Pringle ◽  
K. L. Page ◽  
R. C. Dalal
Keyword(s):  
Microbial Biomass ◽  
Organic Carbon ◽  
Soil Organic Carbon ◽  
Plant Growth ◽  
Temporal Change ◽  
Organic C ◽  
Soil C ◽  
Efficient Sampling ◽  
Soc Stock ◽  
Grazing Lands

The accurate measurement of the soil organic carbon (SOC) stock in Australian grazing lands is important due to the major role that SOC plays in soil productivity and the potential influence of soil C cycling on Australia’s greenhouse gas emissions. However, the current sampling methodologies for SOC stock are varied and potentially conflicting. It was the objective of this paper to review the nature of, and reasons for, SOC variability; the sampling methodologies commonly used; and to identify knowledge gaps for SOC measurement in grazing lands. Soil C consists of a range of biological materials, in various SOC pools such as dissolved organic C, micro- and meso-fauna (microbial biomass), fungal hyphae and fresh plant residues in or on the soil (particulate organic C, light-fraction C), the products of decomposition (humus, slow pool C) and complexed organic C, and char and phytoliths (inert, passive or resistant C); and soil inorganic C (carbonates and bicarbonates). Microbial biomass and particulate or light-fraction organic C are most sensitive to management or land-use change; resistant organic C and soil carbonates are least sensitive. The SOC present at any location is influenced by a series of complex interactions between plant growth, climate, soil type or parent material, topography and site management. Because of this, SOC stock and SOC pools are highly variable on both spatial and temporal scales. This creates a challenge for efficient sampling. Sampling methods are predominantly based on design-based (classical) statistical techniques, crucial to which is a randomised sampling pattern that negates bias. Alternatively a model-based (geostatistical) analysis can be used, which does not require randomisation. Each approach is equally valid to characterise SOC in the rangelands. However, given that SOC reporting in the rangelands will almost certainly rely on average values for some aggregated scale (such as a paddock or property), we contend that the design-based approach might be preferred. We also challenge soil surveyors and their sponsors to realise that: (i) paired sites are the most efficient way of detecting a temporal change in SOC stock, but destructive sampling and cumulative measurement errors decrease our ability to detect change; (ii) due to (i), an efficient sampling scheme to estimate baseline status is not likely to be an efficient sampling scheme to estimate temporal change; (iii) samples should be collected as widely as possible within the area of interest; (iv) replicate of laboratory analyses is a critical step in being able to characterise temporal change. Sampling requirements for SOC stock in Australian grazing lands are yet to be explicitly quantified and an examination of a range of these ecosystems is required in order to assess the sampling densities and techniques necessary to detect specified changes in SOC stock and SOC pools. An examination of techniques that can help reduce sampling requirements (such as measurement of the SOC fractions that are most sensitive to management changes and/or measurement at specific times of the year – preferably before rapid plant growth – to decrease temporal variability), and new technologies for in situ SOC measurement is also required.

Stability and storage of soil organic carbon in a heavy-textured Karst soil from south-eastern Australia

Soil Research ◽  
2014 ◽  
Vol 52 (5) ◽  
pp. 476 ◽  
Author(s):  
Eleanor Hobley ◽  
Garry R. Willgoose ◽  
Silvia Frisia ◽  
Geraldine Jacobsen
Keyword(s):  
Organic Carbon ◽  
Soil Organic Carbon ◽  
Soil Profile ◽  
C Sequestration ◽  
Mineral Association ◽  
Radiocarbon Dates ◽  
Organic C ◽  
Soil C ◽  
Eastern Australia ◽  
Particle Size Fractionation

Both aggregation and mineral association have been previously found to enhance soil organic carbon (SOC) storage (the amount of organic C retained in a soil), and stability (the length of time organic C is retained in a soil). These mechanisms are therefore attractive targets for soil C sequestration. In this study, we investigate and compare SOC storage and stability of SOC associated with fine minerals and stored within aggregates using a combination of particle-size fractionation, elemental analysis and radiocarbon dating. In this heavy-textured, highly aggregated soil, SOC was found to be preferentially associated with fine minerals throughout the soil profile. By contrast, the oldest SOC was located in the coarsest, most highly aggregated fraction. In the topsoil, radiocarbon ages of the aggregate-associated SOC indicate retention times in the order of centuries. Below the topsoil, retention times of aggregate-SOC are in the order of millennia. Throughout the soil profile, radiocarbon dates indicate an enhanced stability in the order of centuries compared with the fine mineral fraction. Despite this, the radiocarbon ages of the mineral-associated SOC were in the order of centuries to millennia in the subsoil (30–100 cm), indicating that mineral-association is also an effective stabilisation mechanism in this subsoil. Our results indicate that enhanced SOC storage does not equate to enhanced SOC stability, which is an important consideration for sequestration schemes targeting both the amount and longevity of soil carbon.

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