Underwater adhesion represents a huge technological challenge as the presence of water compromises the performance of most commercially available adhesives. Inspired by natural organisms, we have designed an adhesive based on complex coacervation, a liquid–liquid phase separation phenomenon. A complex coacervate adhesive is formed by mixing oppositely charged polyelectrolytes bearing pendant thermoresponsive poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) chains. The material fully sets underwater due to a change in the environmental conditions, namely temperature and ionic strength. In this work, we incorporate silica nanoparticles forming a hybrid complex coacervate and investigate the resulting mechanical properties. An enhancement of the mechanical properties is observed below the PNIPAM lower critical solution temperature (LCST): this is due to the formation of PNIPAM–silica junctions, which, after setting, contribute to a moderate increase in the moduli and in the adhesive properties only when applying an ionic strength gradient. By contrast, when raising the temperature above the LCST, the mechanical properties are dominated by the association of PNIPAM chains and the nanofiller incorporation leads to an increased heterogeneity with the formation of fracture planes at the interface between areas of different concentrations of nanoparticles, promoting earlier failure of the network—an unexpected and noteworthy consequence of this hybrid system.
Water-resistant nanopaper with tunable water barrier and mechanical properties from assembled complexes of oppositely charged cellulosic nanomaterials
