<p>South East Australia is characterised by a diverse climate ranging from lush, temperate mountain ranges to hot and arid grasslands. The region is home to Australia's largest river system, the Murray-Darling. The Murray-Darling Basin is an important agricultural region, generating almost 50% of Australia's total irrigated agricultural production in 2018. Rainfall in this region is typically highly variable and subject to severe drought. The Millennium Drought (2001-2009), widely known as the worst drought on record and one of the most severe in the world, has now been superseded by a worse drought (2017-present), setting a new extreme in the drought record. During the current drought, rainfall, root zone soil moisture and water storages have reached record-breaking low levels. High temperatures have also broken historical records on multiple occasions since the drought began. Drought conditions and exceptionally high temperatures have dried the landscape, which has led to intense bushfires that have so far ravaged over 5 million hectares.</p><p>Yet the degree to which the land surface exacerbates drought in the Murray-Darling Basin remains unknown. In other words, the relative importance of local versus remote processes affecting rainfall, particularly during drought, is uncertain. Where does the moisture come from, and how strongly do local land surface processes attenuate or amplify this atmospheric moisture to affect local rainfall? Establishing the evaporative source regions that supply moisture for rainfall can help reveal the mechanisms driving anomalously low rainfall. In the case of drought, it can help reveal whether anomalous rainfall was due to a reduction in source evaporation, anomalous atmospheric circulation (i.e., the moisture was generated but transported somewhere else), land surface control on the atmosphere through feedbacks, or a combination of factors.</p><p>We used a Lagrangian back-trajectory approach to determine the long-term average evaporative source regions that supply Australia's rainfall, and the level of recycling that rainfall undergoes. The back-trajectory model tracked water vapour from the location of rainfall events backward in time and space and identified the evaporative origin. From this, we calculated the proportion of rainfall falling across the Murray-Darling Basin that originated as evapotranspiration from the Basin itself; that is, the rainfall recycling ratio.</p><p>By combining this long-term baseline of source region and rainfall recycling with anomalies of source region evaporation and local atmospheric boundary layer properties, we found that the drivers of low rainfall changed through time during the Millennium Drought. At the peak of the Drought the anomalously low rainfall was driven by a lack of atmospheric moisture advected from the identified typical source region; at other times the low rainfall was due to local conditions unfavorable for the precipitation of available moisture. Overall we found that land surface control on the atmosphere exacerbated the Millennium Drought by approximately 10%.</p>
Developing and Demonstrating Climate Indicators for Monitoring the Changing Water Cycle