Effect of a negative energy balance induced by feed restriction in lactating sows on hepatic lipid metabolism, milk production and development of litters

Abstract In the dairy cow, negative energy balance affects milk yield and composition as well as animal health. Studying the effects of negative energy balance on dairy cow milk production is thus essential. Feed restriction (FR) experiments attempting to reproduce negative energy balance by reducing the quantity or quality of the diet were conducted in order to better describe the animal physiology changes. The study of FR is also of interest since with climate change issues, cows may be increasingly faced with periods of drought leading to a shortage of forages. The aim of this article is to review the effects of FR during lactation in dairy cows to obtain a better understanding of metabolism changes and how it affects mammary gland activity and milk production and composition. A total of 41 papers studying FR in lactating cows were used to investigate physiological changes induced by these protocols. FR protocols affect the entire animal metabolism as indicated by changes in blood metabolites such as a decrease in glucose concentration and an increase in non-esterified fatty acid or β-hydroxybutyrate concentrations; hormonal regulations such as a decrease in insulin and insulin-like growth factor I or an increase in growth hormone concentrations. These variations indicated a mobilization of body reserve in most studies. FR also affects mammary gland activity through changes in gene expression and could affect mammary cell turnover through cell apoptosis, cell proliferation, and exfoliation of mammary epithelial cells into milk. Because of modifications of the mammary gland and general metabolism, FR decreases milk production and can affect milk composition with decreased lactose and protein concentrations and increased fat concentration. These effects, however, can vary widely depending on the type of restriction, its duration and intensity, or the stage of lactation in which it takes place. Finally, to avoid yield loss and metabolic disorders, it is important to identify reliable biomarkers to monitor energy balance.

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Changes in selected biochemical parameters during subclinical and clinical ketosis in dairy cows

Medycyna Weterynaryjna ◽

10.21521/mw.6133 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 74 (10) ◽

pp. 6133-2019

Author(s):

YUANYUAN CHEN ◽

ZHIHAO DONG ◽

RUIRUI LI ◽

CHUANG XU

Keyword(s):

Lipid Metabolism ◽

Energy Balance ◽

Dairy Cows ◽

Perinatal Period ◽

Oxidative Capacity ◽

Negative Energy ◽

Negative Energy Balance ◽

Fibroblast Growth Factor 21 ◽

Acid Oxidation ◽

Subclinical Ketosis

Negative energy balance (NEB) is a common pathological cause of ketosis. As the major organs of lipid metabolism, the liver and fat tissue take part in regulating lipid oxidative capacity and energy demands, which is also a key metabolic pathway that regulates NEB development during the perinatal period. Fibroblast Growth Factor 21 (FGF21) is a novel metabolic regulator involved in the control of fatty acid oxidation and lipid metabolism during a prolonged negative energy balance. Our study determined a correlation between serum FGF21 and β-hydroxybutyric acid (BHBA) levels in dairy cows with ketosis. We used sixty cows with low milk yield, abnormal glucose metabolism, and ketosis. Serum FGF21 and BHBA levels were measured using commercial kits. Serum FGF21 increased with increasing BHBA levels up to 1.6 mmol/L. At BHBA levels > 1.6 mmol/L, FGF21 decreased. Serum FGF21 levels were positively associated with BHBA levels, particularly in dairy cows with subclinical ketosis (r = 0.647, P < 0.01). At BHBA levels between 1.2 mmol/L and 1.6 mmol/L, FGF21 was more closely correlated with BHBA than with other metabolic parameters. At BHBA levels > 1.6 mmol/L, the association between FGF21 and BHBA was not significant. In conclusion, our results show that FGF21 was closely related with SK in cows. FGF21 may be a promising regulator in the prevention of subclinical ketosis.

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Physiological and genetic differences between low and high index dairy cows

BSAP Occasional Publication ◽

10.1017/s0263967x0003370x ◽

2001 ◽

Vol 26 (1) ◽

pp. 223-236 ◽

Cited By ~ 8

Author(s):

M. C. Lucy ◽

B. A. Crooker

Keyword(s):

Energy Balance ◽

Dairy Cattle ◽

Dairy Cows ◽

Milk Production ◽

Negative Energy ◽

High Index ◽

Negative Energy Balance ◽

Positive Energy ◽

Serum Concentrations ◽

Days Open

AbstractSelection of dairy cattle for increased milk production has decreased some indices of reproductive efficiency. For example, days open are increased by one day for every 100 kg of increased milk yield per lactation. Some of the change in days open can be explained by delayed onset of oestrous cyclicity and lower conception rate to artificial insemination in cows with greater milk production. Despite these negative associations between milk production and reproduction, reproduction in herds of high producing dairy cattle is not necessarily compromised relative to reproduction in herds of low producing dairy cattle. This is because there is a large environmental effect on dairy reproduction. High producing herds generally have better management and better oestrous detection. Therefore, high producing dairy herds may partially overcome the antagonistic relationship between milk production and reproduction. Physiological mechanisms that lead to poorer reproduction in high producing cows are partially defined. Negative energy balance that occurs in high producing dairy cows can be associated with a delay in the initiation of ovarian cycles and the interval to first breeding. Many of the effects of negative energy balance on postpartum reproduction can be explained by decreased serum luteinizing hormone (LH) that is associated with negative energy balance. Serum LH increases as cows move toward positive energy balance and greater LH stimulates growth and ovulation of ovarian follicles. We have initiated studies to address physiological differences in high and low index dairy cows. The reproductive endocrinology of cows from a control line (5,900 kg milk/lactation) and a select line (10,900 kg milk/lactation) of dairy cows at the University of Minnesota was studied over a two-year period. Cows in Year 1 were similar for serum concentrations of LH, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), and oestradiol (preovulatory period). In both years, serum concentrations of progesterone during luteal phases, however, were decreased in select cows. The Year 2 cows also had a delay in the return to oestrous cyclicity that was associated with reduced LH. The possibility that decreased progesterone causes infertility in dairy cows will require further study. Collectively, these data suggest that changes in blood progesterone concentrations may explain, partially, lower fertility in high index dairy cows.

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Adipose tissue remodeling in late-lactation dairy cows during feed-restriction-induced negative energy balance

Journal of Dairy Science ◽

10.3168/jds.2016-11552 ◽

2016 ◽

Vol 99 (12) ◽

pp. 10009-10021 ◽

Cited By ~ 21

Author(s):

G. Andres Contreras ◽

Kyan Thelen ◽

Sarah E. Schmidt ◽

Clarissa Strieder-Barboza ◽

Courtney L. Preseault ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Adipose Tissue ◽

Energy Balance ◽

Dairy Cows ◽

Tissue Remodeling ◽

Negative Energy ◽

Negative Energy Balance ◽

Feed Restriction ◽

Adipose Tissue Remodeling

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Nutritional effects on resumption of ovarian cyclicity and conception rate in postpartum dairy cows

BSAP Occasional Publication ◽

10.1017/s0263967x00033644 ◽

2001 ◽

Vol 26 (1) ◽

pp. 133-145 ◽

Cited By ~ 31

Author(s):

W.R. Butler

Keyword(s):

Energy Balance ◽

Dairy Cows ◽

Milk Production ◽

Dietary Protein ◽

Negative Energy ◽

Negative Energy Balance ◽

Breeding Period ◽

Plasma Urea ◽

Igf I ◽

High Dietary Protein

AbstractIncreased genetic potential for milk production has been associated with a decline in fertility of lactating cows. Following parturition the nutritional requirements increase rapidly with milk production and result in negative energy balance (NEBAL). NEBAL delays the time of first ovulation thereby affecting ovarian cycles before and during the subsequent breeding period The effects of NEBAL on reinitiation of ovulation are manifested through inhibition of LH pulse frequency and low levels of glucose, insulin and IGF-I in blood that collectively restrain oestrogen production by dominant follicles. Upregulation of LH pulses and peripheral IGF-I in association with the NEBAL nadir increases the likelihood that emerging dominant follicles will ovulate. The legacy of NEBAL is reduced fertility after insemination in conjunction with reduced serum progesterone concentrations. Diets high in crude protein support high milk yield, but may be detrimental to reproductive performance. Depending upon protein quantity and composition, serum concentrations of progesterone may be lower and the uterine luminal environment is altered. High protein intake is correlated with plasma urea concentrations that are inversely related to uterine pH and fertility. The direct effects of high dietary protein and plasma urea on embryo quality and development in cattle are inconsistent. In conclusion, the poor fertility of high producing dairy cows reflects the combined effects of a uterine environment that is dependent on progesterone, but has been rendered suboptimal for embryo development by antecedent effects of negative energy balance and may be further compromised by the effects of urea resultingfrom intake of high dietary protein.

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Relationship between the timing of the first postpartum ovulation and antral follicle counts in Holstein cows

Journal of Ovarian Research ◽

10.1186/s13048-020-0610-5 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 13 (1) ◽

Author(s):

Eri Furukawa ◽

Tomoyuki Masaki ◽

Kenichiro Sakaguchi ◽

Min Bo ◽

Yojiro Yanagawa ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Energy Balance ◽

Nutritional Status ◽

Milk Production ◽

Ovarian Reserve ◽

Antral Follicle ◽

Antral Follicle Count ◽

Negative Energy ◽

Ovarian Cycle ◽

Negative Energy Balance ◽

Follicular Dynamics

Abstract Background The timing of the first postpartum ovulation is an important factor affecting the timing of estrous resumption in dairy cows. The first postpartum ovulation is delayed in cows producing large amounts of milk with an intensive negative energy balance. The antral follicle count (AFC) and serum anti-Müllerian hormone concentrations are known to be indicators of the ovarian reserve, which is the number and quality of follicles left in a pair of ovaries and known as an indicator of female fertility. Cows with higher AFC have been proven to show higher pregnancy rate and shorter calving to conception intervals; however, the relationship between the timing of the first postpartum ovulation and ovarian reserve remains unclear. Therefore, this study examined the relationships between postpartum follicular dynamics, the ovarian cycle, nutritional status, and ovarian reserve. Methods Transrectal ultrasonography was conducted from calving to 70–120 days in milk (DIM) in 26 cows to monitor AFC, follicular dynamics and the ovarian cycle. Body weight (BW) and milk yield were used as indicators of nutritional status. Results The first postpartum ovulation was significantly later in cows with low AFC (< 25) than in those with high AFC (≥25), while changes in BW from calving to the nadir and milk production were similar in both groups. The present results also suggested that cows with low AFC and a delayed first postpartum ovulation had a shorter first ovarian cycle after the first postpartum ovulation. The mean DIM of the first postpartum artificial insemination (AI) and days open (days from calving to AI with which pregnancy was achieved) were similar in high and low AFC groups. Conclusions The first postpartum ovulation was significantly earlier in cows with high AFC than in those with low AFC. The assumed reason for this result was higher sensitivity to luteinizing hormone and larger androstenedione and estradiol production in follicles in high AFC cows. Therefore, cows with high AFC may be more fertile than those with low AFC while their milk production increase and BW decrease; it means they are in negative energy balance. (340/350 words)

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Regulation of serum leptin and its role in the hyperphagia of lactation in the rat

Journal of Endocrinology ◽

10.1677/joe.0.1760193 ◽

2003 ◽

Vol 176 (2) ◽

pp. 193-203 ◽

Cited By ~ 35

Author(s):

RG Denis ◽

G Williams ◽

RG Vernon

Keyword(s):

Energy Balance ◽

Food Intake ◽

Milk Production ◽

Litter Size ◽

High Energy ◽

Negative Energy ◽

Negative Energy Balance ◽

Calorie Intake ◽

Serum Leptin ◽

Nocturnal Rise

The factors regulating serum leptin concentration and its relationship to the hyperphagia of lactation have been investigated in rats. Lactation results in hypoleptinaemia and loss, or at least marked attenuation, of the nocturnal rise in serum leptin. Litter removal resulted in a fall in food intake and restoration of the nocturnal rise in serum leptin. Returning the litter to the mother after a 48-h absence increased food intake and began to reinitiate milk production, but the nocturnal serum leptin levels were still increased at 48 h after litter restoration. Adjusting litter size to four, eight, ten or fourteen pups at parturition resulted in different rates of litter growth and food intake during the subsequent lactation, but had no effect on the degree of hypoleptinaemia. Reducing litter size from ten to four pups at mid-lactation resulted in a transient increase in both serum leptin and pup growth rate, while food intake fell to a level found in rats suckling four pups throughout lactation. Reducing milk production by injection of bromocriptine increased serum leptin, but did not restore the nocturnal rise in serum leptin; food intake decreased, but remained much higher than in non-lactating rats. Feeding a varied, high-energy diet resulted in a decrease in the weight of food ingested, but no change in calorie intake, and had no effect on the hypoleptinaemia. These studies suggested that the hypoleptinaemia of lactating rats is due to negative energy balance, but the loss of the nocturnal rise in serum leptin is due to the suckling stimulus. The negative energy balance of lactation does not appear to be caused by a physical constraint on food intake. While the hypoleptinaemia should facilitate the hyperphagia of lactation, other orexigenic signals must also be involved.

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1154 Feed restriction-induced negative energy balance alters the fatty acid profiles of adipose tissue and milk fat of dairy cows

Journal of Animal Science ◽

10.2527/jam2016-1154 ◽

2016 ◽

Vol 94 (suppl_5) ◽

pp. 553-554

Author(s):

S. E. Schmidt ◽

K. M. Thelen ◽

C. L. Preseault ◽

G. A. Contreras ◽

A. L. Lock

Keyword(s):

Adipose Tissue ◽

Fatty Acid ◽

Energy Balance ◽

Dairy Cows ◽

Milk Fat ◽

Negative Energy ◽

Negative Energy Balance ◽

Feed Restriction ◽

Fatty Acid Profiles

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Effects of Propylene Glycol on Negative Energy Balance of Postpartum Dairy Cows

Animals ◽

10.3390/ani10091526 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 10 (9) ◽

pp. 1526

Author(s):

Fan Zhang ◽

Xuemei Nan ◽

Hui Wang ◽

Yiguang Zhao ◽

Yuming Guo ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Energy Balance ◽

Dairy Cows ◽

Propylene Glycol ◽

Milk Production ◽

Milk Fat ◽

Metabolic Diseases ◽

Ketone Bodies ◽

Negative Energy ◽

Negative Energy Balance ◽

Research Progress

With the improvement in the intense genetic selection of dairy cows, advanced management strategies, and improved feed quality and disease control, milk production level has been greatly improved. However, the negative energy balance (NEB) is increasingly serious at the postpartum stage because the intake of nutrients cannot meet the demand of quickly improved milk production. The NEB leads to a large amount of body fat mobilization and consequently the elevated production of ketones, which causes metabolic diseases such as ketosis and fatty liver. The high milk production of dairy cows in early lactation aggravates NEB. The metabolic diseases lead to metabolic disorders, a decrease in reproductive performance, and lactation performance decline, seriously affecting the health and production of cows. Propylene glycol (PG) can alleviate NEB through gluconeogenesis and inhibit the synthesis of ketone bodies. In addition, PG improves milk yield, reproduction, and immune performance by improving plasma glucose and liver function in ketosis cows, and reduces milk fat percentage. However, a large dose of PG (above 500 g/d) has toxic and side effects in cows. The feeding method used was an oral drench. The combination of PG with some other additives can improve the effects in preventing ketosis. Overall, the present review summarizes the recent research progress in the impacts of NEB in dairy cows and the properties of PG in alleviating NEB and reducing the risk of ketosis.

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