What are specific learning difficulties?

1993 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mark Selikowitz
Keyword(s):  
Social Competence ◽  
Impulse Control ◽  
Learning Difficulties ◽  
Academic Skills ◽  
Broad Sense ◽  
Learning Difficulty ◽  
Significant Delay ◽  
Central Importance ◽  
Average Intelligence ◽  
Specific Learning

This is a book about children like Angela and Michael: intelligent children who have a significant and unexplained difficulty in learning. Each child with such difficulties is unique, but they have enough in common with one another for their condition to be summarized by one collective term. I shall use the term ‘specific learning difficulties’ as an umbrella term for this whole group of disorders. A specific learning difficulty can be defined as: . . . an unexpected and unexplained condition, occurring in a child of average or above average intelligence, characterized by a significant delay in one or more areas of learning. . . . In order to understand this definition fully, a number of important questions must be answered. Which areas of learning are involved? What is a ‘significant delay’? Which other causes of difficulty must be excluded? Let us look at these questions one by one. . . . Which areas of learning are involved? . . . The areas of learning involved in specific learning difficulties can be divided into two groups. The first group consists of the basic academic skills: reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, and language (both comprehension and expression). These are relatively easy skills to measure, and are of central importance to success at school. The second group contains areas of learning that are also vitally important, but are far less well understood. These involve the learning of skills such as persistence, organization, impulse control, social competence, and the coordination of movements. I shall use the term specific learning difficulty to cover significant delay in any of these areas. Children may have only one area involved, or a number of areas. I am, therefore, using the term ‘learning’ in a broad sense, to include all areas of learning, not only academic areas. There are good reasons for grouping all these difficulties together. It has been well established that difficulties in these different areas of learning are closely related. They often coexist in the same child, they are all more common in boys, they all share the same theories of causation, and they all share the same general principles of management.

Visual Perception in Specific Learning Difficulties

2021 ◽  
Vol 1 (1) ◽  
pp. 25-40
Author(s):  
Neriman Aral
Keyword(s):  
Individual Differences ◽  
Visual Perception ◽  
Learning Difficulties ◽  
Learning Difficulty ◽  
The Family ◽  
Mental Problems ◽  
The Moment ◽  
The Individual ◽  
The Brain ◽  
Specific Learning

From the moment the child is born, learning becomes meaningful and it is interpreted as a result of the experiences first in the family and then in school. However, it is sometimes not possible to talk about the fact that learning takes place in all children although the process has taken place in this direction. Sometimes the individual differences that exist in children and the inability to get the necessary support in structuring their learning experiences can be effective in the failure of learning, while sometimes the type of congenital difficulty can be effective. One of these types of difficulty is a specific learning difficulty. It is not always possible for children with specific learning difficulties to learn, even if they do not have any mental problems. In this case, many factors can be effective, especially the problems that children experience in their visual perception can become effective. Since visual perception is the processing of symbols received from the environment in the brain, the problem that may be experienced in this process can also make it difficult to learn this situation. In line with these considerations, it is aimed to focus on the importance of visual perception in specific learning difficulties.

Adulthood

1993 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mark Selikowitz
Keyword(s):  
Learning Difficulties ◽  
Learning Difficulty ◽  
Musical Piece ◽  
Auguste Rodin ◽  
Wide Range ◽  
Hans Christian Andersen ◽  
Critical Scrutiny ◽  
Children's Stories ◽  
Specific Learning ◽  
Experience Difficulty

All children with specific learning difficulties improve as they grow. In some, the difficulties resolve completely, while others continue to have some degree of difficulty in the specific areas of learning affected. We still have no way of determining which children will continue to experience difficulty and which will not. Nor do we have reliable figures on the relative proportions of those where the difficulties resolve completely and those where they persist. This chapter provides information and advice for adults with persisting specific learning difficulties. Many people are designed to be better adults than children. A child has little opportunity of selecting those things that he enjoys or finds easier, and to avoid those he dislikes or finds difficult. He is required to be an all-rounder, performing a wide range of activities, many under the critical scrutiny of his teachers and peers. It is daunting to think of what many children are required to do regularly at school: reading aloud, writing something that will be marked (for content, neatness, and spelling), doing arithmetical computations that will be checked, playing competitive sport, performing in a play in public, and playing a musical piece to a critical audience. An adult, on the other hand, can have a successful career and avoid any, or all, of these activities. Many famous people are said to have had a specific learning difficulty as children, but it is very difficult to know for certain if this is true. Nevertheless, many of their stories are highly suggestive of the condition. What they all show, whether they had a specific learning difficulty or not, is that problems with learning in childhood need not be a bar to outstanding achievements in adulthood. There follow some examples. . . . Hans Christian Andersen (1805–1875) . Famous as an author of children’s stories such as ‘The Little Match-girl’ and ‘The Little Mermaid’, his handwriting shows characteristics of specific learning difficulty. . . . . . . Auguste Rodin (1840–1917). Now famous for his sculptures, such as ‘The Thinker’ and ‘The Burghers of Calais’, he was regarded as ‘an idiot’, and ‘ineducable’ as a child. . . .

scholarly journals Timing is key to providing modified assessments for students with specific learning difficulties

2019 ◽  
Vol 9 (1) ◽  
pp. 49-56
Author(s):  
Christian P Gray ◽  
Steven A Burr
Keyword(s):  
Medical Students ◽  
Early Diagnosis ◽  
Learning Difficulties ◽  
Medical Knowledge ◽  
Multiple Choice Question ◽  
Knowledge Assessment ◽  
Learning Difficulty ◽  
Medical Program ◽  
Assessment Performance ◽  
Specific Learning

Abstract Introduction Medical students who are diagnosed with a specific learning difficulty (SpLD) will typically receive a reasonable adjustment within examinations in the form of modified assessment provision (MAP). This study investigated whether the timing of SpLD diagnosis and subsequent implementation of MAP has an impact on performance in applied medical knowledge multiple choice question (MCQ) assessments. Method The MCQ performance of 108 students diagnosed with SpLD who received a MAP was monitored and compared with 1960 students who received an unmodified assessment, over 5 years of a medical program. Students who received a SpLD diagnosis in the latter years of the program were identified as not receiving a MAP in assessments prior to diagnosis. Results Differences were found between declaration and diagnosis, with 44.4% of students who declared and 48.1% who did not declare subsequently receiving a diagnosis. Students with SpLD who receive a MAP increase their applied medical knowledge assessment performance, although there is a delay of up to a year for this impact to reach significance. Conclusion Early diagnosis of SpLD is necessary to ensure the intended benefit is received from MAP.

scholarly journals Specific learning difficulty: autism, dyscalculia, dyslexia and dysgraphia

2021 ◽  
Vol 7 (3) ◽  
pp. 97-106
Author(s):  
Karina Eliana Castro Intriago ◽  
Liliana Magdalena Alcívar Rodríguez ◽  
Luis Alfredo Tubay Cevallos
Keyword(s):  
Social Relationships ◽  
Qualitative Methodology ◽  
Learning Difficulties ◽  
Learning Problems ◽  
Learning Difficulty ◽  
Learning Techniques ◽  
The Social ◽  
The Subject ◽  
Desk Review ◽  
Specific Learning

There are specific learning difficulties such as autism, dyscalculia, dyslexia and dysgraphia, the purpose of this article is to understand how these disorders affect verbal, non-verbal, logical and written communication in the social relationships of children who suffer from it. The qualitative methodology was applied in combination with the desk review technique, obtaining clear and pertinent criteria, an analysis of concepts was proposed on each of their meanings, characteristics and typology, suggestions of learning techniques are presented regarding the way correct to reduce disorders, the opinion of different authors who have carried out studies on the subject was obtained, interpreting from the pedagogical perspective and the importance of knowing the subject to act against these learning problems.

scholarly journals SPECIFIC LEARNING DIFFICULTIES MANIFESTATION IN CHILDREN WITH AVERAGE INTELLIGENCE AND CHILDREN WITH INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES

2019 ◽  
Vol 19 (3-4) ◽  
pp. 7-24
Author(s):  
Natasha Chichevska-Jovanova ◽  
Olivera Rashikj-Canevska ◽  
Aleksandra Karovska-Ristovska ◽  
Daniela Dimitrova-Radojichikj ◽  
Vesna Cekovska
Keyword(s):  
Intellectual Disabilities ◽  
Learning Difficulties ◽  
Average Intelligence ◽  
Specific Learning

Social and emotional development

1993 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mark Selikowitz
Keyword(s):  
Social Skills ◽  
Social Cognition ◽  
Learning Difficulties ◽  
Social Consequences ◽  
Learning Difficulty ◽  
Social Conventions ◽  
Social And Emotional ◽  
The People ◽  
Specific Learning ◽  
The Way

There is widespread recognition that children with specific learning difficulties may experience social and emotional problems because of their learning difficulties, but it is often not realized that impairment of social skills may itself be a form of learning difficulty. This is due to a limitation in the way that the brain is able to understand social conventions. This is called a social cognition (or social learning) deficit. In this chapter, I shall first discuss social cognition deficit, and then discuss a number of behaviour problems that may occur as a result of a specific learning difficulty. Social skills, like any other skills, have to be learned. Yet much of what children learn about socially appropriate behaviour is not actually taught to them; they simply pick it up as they go along. Some children of normal intelligence seem to be less able to learn these things, even when taught. This may be their only area of difficulty, but it is commonly associated with other learning difficulties. These children have been accurately described as being ‘socially tone deaf’. They do not pick up the same cues as other children of the same age. They do not seem to predict the social consequences of their actions. They may be uninhibited, undressing in public without the same embarrassment that their peers would experience. They may be overfriendly to strangers. They may frequently say very tactless things without realizing the effect they are having. They often do not read facial expressions and are oblivious to whether someone is angry or upset with them. They may kiss classmates at an age where this is no longer appropriate. They may make unusual sounds in public. They may be insatiable in their activities, not knowing when to stop in the way another child of their age would. Although such behaviour may be apparent to all who meet the child, the people who are most likely to notice it are the child’s peers. With them, the child often sticks out like a sore thumb. This is something that may not be apparent if the child is only observed in a one-to-one relationship at a clinic.

Theories of causation

1993 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mark Selikowitz
Keyword(s):  
Learning Difficulties ◽  
Fundamental Aspect ◽  
Close Relative ◽  
Learning Difficulty ◽  
Number Of Factors ◽  
Natural Tendency ◽  
One Step ◽  
Definition Of ◽  
Specific Learning

In the definition of specific learning difficulties in the first chapter I emphasized that the delay in learning must be ‘unexplained’. It is, therefore, explicit in the definition that the cause of specific learning difficulties is presently unknown. There are few things more frustrating for a doctor to say, or for a parent to hear, than that the cause of a child’s condition is unknown. There is a natural tendency in such situations to alleviate this discomfort by guessing the cause. This is not necessarily bad, as it is by developing theories and devising experiments to test them that our knowledge advances. But the danger is that in our desire to know the cause with certainty, we may come to believe in a theory so strongly that we think of it as a fact. Theories about specific learning difficulties abound. Most are based on the assumption that there is some impairment of brain function. These theories are not mutually exclusive, since each may explain one step in the chain of events that gives rise to specific learning difficulties, as shown in Figure 3.1. Let us look at these theories one by one. These theories attempt to explain the most fundamental aspect of the condition: its primary cause. It is unlikely that a single factor can be responsible for a specific learning difficulty. Rather, it seems that a number of factors must act together. Such causation is known as ‘multifactorial’. There have been two groups of factors that have been suggested in the causation of specific learning difficulties: genetic factors and environmental factors. There is strong evidence for a genetic factor playing a role in the causation of specific learning difficulties. A number of studies have shown that children with specific learning difficulties are more likely to have a close relative with the same specific learning difficulty. No consistent pattern of inheritance has been described: sometimes it seems to be inherited from the mother, at other times from the father. For all types of such learning difficulty, boys outnumber girls by about three to one.

Screening for Neurological Dysfunction in the Specific Learning Difficulty Child

1998 ◽  
Vol 61 (10) ◽  
pp. 459-464 ◽  
Author(s):  
Sally Goddard Blythe ◽  
David Hyland
Keyword(s):  
Remedial Education ◽  
Learning Difficulties ◽  
Neurological Dysfunction ◽  
Learning Difficulty ◽  
Developmental Factors ◽  
Remedial Intervention ◽  
History Of ◽  
Early Developmental ◽  
Two Populations ◽  
Specific Learning

A developmental questionnaire was given to the parents of 140 children. Seventy of the children had a history of specific learning difficulties which had not responded to normal remedial education. The remaining 70 had no history of specific learning difficulties. The research was undertaken to ascertain whether the developmental questionnaire could be used as a reliable instrument to detect the neuro-developmental delay underlying the specific learning difficulties and preventing remedial intervention from being effective. The results revealed that the screening questionnaire did discriminate between the two populations. At a 98% confidence level, a child with a score of 7 or more belonged to the specific learning difficulty group and a child scoring 2 or less did not. A score of 7 or more is therefore necessary to identify a neuro-developmentally based specific learning difficulty. The two populations were also compared on individual questions to identify which early developmental factors were significant in predicting later learning difficulties when viewed as part of a developmental profile.

How parents can help — general principles

1993 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mark Selikowitz
Keyword(s):  
Learning Difficulties ◽  
Self Esteem ◽  
Learning Difficulty ◽  
Wide Range ◽  
Specific Learning

This chapter provides general guidelines for helping a child with a specific learning difficulty. Advice on providing help in particular areas of learning is given in Part 2 of the book. Parents of children with specific learning difficulties need information on how to teach their child and how to build up his self-esteem. In addition, they need help in coping with their own feelings and those of their other children. Let us look first at parents’ concerns. Parents of a child with specific learning difficulties often feel great anxiety about their child. They worry about how their child will cope at school, both academically and socially. They worry about how he will manage if teased, and if made to feel inadequate. When he gets home from school, they are sensitive to his feelings, saddened by his disappointments, and made anxious about his concerns. Parents often feel guilty about their child’s difficulties, wrongly imagining that they are somehow to blame. They may feel angry much of the time too: angry with teachers who fail to understand their child’s problems, and angry with doctors who cannot explain their child’s difficulties. Many parents feel confused by the wide range of opinions about their child’s condition and the variety of treatments that people suggest. They often wonder whether they are doing enough for their child, and whether there is something more they should be doing. They may feel many other emotions as well. They may be embarrassed by their child’s difficulties, hurt by other people’s insensitive remarks, and overwhelmed by the task of teaching their child to overcome his difficulties. There is no one right way to cope with these feelings; no single prescription that will work for all parents. Most parents do cope and do find that things become easier with time. Many find it helpful to have someone to share their feelings with: a friend, a spouse, or a professional; someone who will listen sympathetically and not be judgemental, or too quick to offer advice. Some parents obtain this support from meeting other parents of a child with a similar difficulty.

How a specific learning difficulty is diagnosed

1993 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mark Selikowitz
Keyword(s):  
Academic Skills ◽  
Academic Work ◽  
Warning Sign ◽  
First Year ◽  
Learning Difficulty ◽  
Speech Delay ◽  
Slow Speed ◽  
Basic Level ◽  
Specific Learning

In many cases it is the teacher who first suspects that a child may have a specific learning difficulty. Teachers are able to compare a child’s work and behaviour to that of his peers, and so can often spot a child who is experiencing difficulties before this is noticed by his parents. Sometimes, however, parents are the first to realize that their child may have a problem. There is no completely reliable way of detecting that your child has a specific learning difficulty, but here are some pointers that may alert you to the need for further evaluation of your child’s difficulties. . . . Pointers to a specific learning difficulty . . . It is quite normal for a child to struggle with skills such as reading, writing, spelling, and arithmetic in the first year or two of school, but after this period, he should attain a basic level of competence. If your child continues to struggle beyond this period, he may have a specific learning difficulty. This should be suspected if he seems to be out of his depth and is not showing signs of becoming competent in basic academic skills. It may also be apparent to you that he seems brighter than these difficulties in his academic work would suggest. His reading may be slow and hesitant, with elementary errors. When reading, he may make up the story based on the illustrations to cover his difficulties, or he may guess wildly at words. He may be unable to spell the words in his spelling list, despite trying reasonably hard. His writing may remain very immature or illegible despite his best efforts. Another warning sign is a child who can write neatly, but only if he writes at an extremely slow speed. If his arithmetic skills are affected, he will seem to be lost when asked to do the calculations expected of a child in his class. He may have great difficulties understanding the meaning of arithmetical operations such as addition, subtraction, and multiplication. Another clue that a child may have a specific learning difficulty is speech delay.

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