Cognitive and Psychiatric Manifestations of Childhood-Onset Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune disease characterized by the production of autoantibodies directed against multiple organ systems. Individuals with SLE may have disease of only one organ system or of many organ systems at one time during a “flare” of disease activity. Systemic lupus erythematosus is characterized by multiple flares and remissions, and flares may lead to end-organ damage. The diagnosis of SLE is generally made by fulfilling four out of 11 of the American College of Rheumatology (ACR) 1997 Revised Classification Criteria for SLE (Hochberg 1997). Although the 1997 revised criteria have not been validated, the earlier 1982 criteria (Tan et al. 1982) have a sensitivity of 96% and specificity of 100%in childhood-onsetSLE(cSLE) (Ferraz et al. 1994). See Table 3.1 for these criteria. Systemic lupus erythematosus has a prevalence rate of 500 per million persons in the U.S. population (Klippel 1997) but may be as high as 130 per 100,000 persons (Uramoto et al. 1999). Approximately 15% of all SLE has its onset in childhood (prior to 18 years of age). Systemic lupus erythematosus occurs more commonly in non-Caucasians, with greater severity of SLE in children and adult Latino and African Americans than in non-Latino Caucasians (Michet et al. 1979).The female predominance of SLE in adulthood (10:1 female-to-male ratio) is less pronounced in childhood, and the ratio prior to puberty is more likely to be 5:1 or even 3:1.The majority of cSLE cases have onset in the peripubertal age period (10–15 years), which continues to suggest a link between estrogen and other hormones on the development of SLE. Childhood-onset SLE differs from adult-onset SLE in that the frequency of renal disease is higher, and the incidence and prevalence of neuropsychiatric SLE (NPSLE) is probably greater (Tucker et al. 1995; Sibbit et al. 2002). Children require aggressive immunosuppression, which on a dose per kilogram of body weight is generally higher than that required by an adult to treat a similar disease manifestation. Immunosuppression often includes corticosteroids. At least in adults, corticosteroids do not appear to cause cognitive impairment (Carbette et al. 1986; Denburg et al. 1997; Carlomagno et al. 2000).