The Kelmendi

2020 ◽  
pp. 26-37
Author(s):  
Noel Malcolm
Keyword(s):  
Twentieth Century ◽  
Eighteenth Century ◽  
Seventeenth Century ◽  
Fifteenth Century ◽  
Collective Identity ◽  
Special Role ◽  
Large Area ◽  
Early Twentieth Century ◽  
Early Eighteenth Century ◽  
Self Defence

The clan or tribe (‘fis’) system was fundamental to life in the northern Albanian highlands (Malësi e Madhe), and the Kelmendi were the most important of all the clans. This essay traces the story of their origin and development, and explains how and why they acquired their special pre-eminence over a much larger group of clans. Like the others, they began in the fifteenth century as a grouping, for self-defence purposes, around one prominent family. Unlike the others, they were given a special role by the Ottomans: derbend status, which meant that they functioned as armed guards of mountain passes and roads over a large area. This gave them a stronger collective identity, the privilege of bearing arms and the ability to extend their influence over other clans. The Kelmendi were active in many seventeenth-century revolts, and in the early eighteenth century the Ottomans tried to control them by means of a policy of mass deportation. Nevertheless they remained a dominant presence in the area until the early twentieth century.

Orphans of the Empire: Lhasa’s Chinese Community from the Qing Era to the Early Twentieth Century

Modern China ◽  
2020 ◽  
pp. 009770042096992
Author(s):  
Huasha Zhang
Keyword(s):  
Twentieth Century ◽  
Eighteenth Century ◽  
Social Influence ◽  
Significant Role ◽  
Chinese Population ◽  
Chinese Community ◽  
Academic Assessment ◽  
Early Twentieth Century ◽  
Cultural Traits ◽  
Early Eighteenth Century

This article analyzes the transformation of Lhasa’s Chinese community from the embodiment of an expansionist power in the early eighteenth century to the orphan of a fallen regime after the Qing Empire’s demise in 1911. Throughout the imperial era, this remote Chinese enclave represented Qing authority in Tibet and remained under the metropole’s strong political and social influence. Its members intermarried with the locals and adopted many Tibetan cultural traits. During the years surrounding the 1911 Xinhai Revolution, this community played a significant role in a series of interconnected political and ethnic confrontations that gave birth to the two antagonistic national bodies of Tibet and China. The community’s history and experiences challenge not only the academic assessment that Tibet’s Chinese population had fully assimilated into Tibetan society by the twentieth century but also the widespread image of pre-1951 Lhasa as a harmonious town of peaceful ethnic coexistence.

Yokes of Gold and Threads of Silk: Sino-Tibetan competition for authority in early twentieth century Kham

2015 ◽  
Vol 49 (4) ◽  
pp. 963-1009 ◽  
Author(s):  
SCOTT RELYEA
Keyword(s):  
Twentieth Century ◽  
Eighteenth Century ◽  
Indirect Influence ◽  
Early Twentieth Century ◽  
Early Eighteenth Century

AbstractBeginning in the early eighteenth century, a bifurcated structure of authority in the Kham region of ethnographic Tibet frustrated attempts by both the Lhasa and Beijing governments to assert their unquestioned control over a myriad polities in the borderlands between Sichuan and Tibet. A tenuous accommodation of this structure persisted from the early eighteenth century until the first two decades of the twentieth century when powerful globalizing norms—territoriality and sovereignty—transformed both the understanding and expectations of territorial rule held by Qing and, later, Republican Chinese officials. Absolutist conceptions of these norms prompted an ambitious endeavour to shatter the bifurcated structure and undermine the Dalai Lama's spiritual influence on Kham society. Infrontier imperialism is used to analyse the incomplete implementation of resulting acculturative and incorporative policies, inflected by these two norms, which challenged the monasteries’ indirect influence on the lay rulers of Kham, initiating a struggle for authority that persists to this day.

Introduction: The Ottoman Empire and its Frontiers

2009 ◽  
Author(s):  
A. C. S. PEACOCK
Keyword(s):  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Twentieth Century ◽  
Seventeenth Century ◽  
Fifteenth Century ◽  
Ottoman Empire ◽  
Middle Ages ◽  
Modern World ◽  
Early Twentieth Century ◽  
History Of ◽  
The Middle Ages

Stretching across Europe, Asia and Africa for half a millennium bridging the end of the Middle Ages and the early twentieth century, the Ottoman Empire was one of the major forces that forged the modern world. The chapters in this book focus on four key themes: frontier fortifications, the administration of the frontier, frontier society and relations between rulers and ruled, and the economy of the frontier. Through snapshots of aspects of Ottoman frontier policies in such diverse times and places as fifteenth-century Anatolia, seventeenth-century Hungary, nineteenth-century Iraq or twentieth-century Jordan, the book provides a richer picture than hitherto available of how this complex empire coped with the challenge of administering and defending disparate territories in an age of comparatively primitive communications. By way of introduction, this chapter seeks to provide an overview of these four themes in the history of Ottoman frontiers.

Rank and Emolument in the British Diplomatic Service 1689–1789

1959 ◽  
Vol 9 ◽  
pp. 19-49 ◽  
Author(s):  
D. B. Horn
Keyword(s):  
Eighteenth Century ◽  
Seventeenth Century ◽  
Fifteenth Century ◽  
Intermediate Grades ◽  
Select Committee ◽  
Louis Xiv ◽  
Important Intermediate ◽  
Basic Distinction ◽  
Early Eighteenth Century

From the institution of resident diplomatic missions in the fifteenth century a basic distinction has been drawn between ambassadors, either ordinary or extraordinary, and ministers of less eminence, often described as residents. By the late seventeenth century, however, various intermediate grades had become established. For example, a decree of the States of Holland, passed on 29 March 1651, mentions ‘ambassadors, resident envoys, agents or other ministers’. Much the most important intermediate rank was that of envoy extraordinary, which under Louis XIV became much commoner than before, while the gulf between the envoy and the mere resident grew steadily. The title of resident is said to have been degraded when the lesser German courts gave or even sold the title to persons who had no diplomatic functions at all. The increasing use made of envoys in the seventeenth century was partly due to a desire for economy, but at least as much to the desire of sovereigns to avoid or at least reduce the number of quarrels between ambassadors where there were several ambassadors at the same court and no generally accepted rules of precedence. Thus Frederick William, the great elector of Brandenburg, is said not to have appointed any ambassadors. There was a similar reluctance at Genoa and in Sweden and elsewhere in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth century. When Cobden proposed and carried in the Select Committee of 1850 on Public Salaries the abolition of embassies he was much less of a radical than his contemporaries thought.

The Translation of European Astronomical Works into Tibetan in the Early Eighteenth Century

Inner Asia ◽  
2015 ◽  
Vol 17 (2) ◽  
pp. 175-198 ◽  
Author(s):  
Yongdan Lobsang
Keyword(s):  
Twentieth Century ◽  
Eighteenth Century ◽  
British Empire ◽  
Scientific Knowledge ◽  
Historical Context ◽  
Early Twentieth Century ◽  
Early Eighteenth Century ◽  
Tycho Brahe

It has long been assumed that European scientific knowledge arrived in Tibet with the agents of the British Empire in the early twentieth century and furthermore that Tibetans did not engage with scientific knowledge until recent years. However, this is far from the case; from the beginning of the eighteenth century onwards Tibetans not only translated a great number of Jesuit astronomical works into Tibetan by order of the Kangxi Emperor (1654–1722), they also reformed one of the calendars in use in Amdo using the principles described by Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe (1546–1601). In this paper I look at how the relevant translations were done, by whom and in what historical context. I shall also explore the process by which the Jesuit-inspired astronomical and calendar turned out to be the catalyst for the adoption, reformation and manufacture of the Qing imperial calendar in Amdo.

The Musical Topic of the Mass in B Minor

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Daniel R. Melamed
Keyword(s):  
Eighteenth Century ◽  
Seventeenth Century ◽  
Sixteenth Century ◽  
Church Music ◽  
Sacred Music ◽  
The Other ◽  
Entire Spectrum ◽  
Giovanni Pierluigi Da Palestrina ◽  
Early Eighteenth Century

If there is a fundamental musical subject of Johann Sebastian Bach’s Mass in B Minor, a compositional problem the work explores, it is the tension between two styles cultivated in church music of Bach’s time. One style was modern and drew on up-to-date music such as the instrumental concerto and the opera aria. The other was old-fashioned and fundamentally vocal, borrowing and adapting the style of Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, his sixteenth-century contemporaries, and his seventeenth-century imitators. The movements that make up Bach’s Mass can be read as exploring the entire spectrum of possibilities offered by these two styles (the modern and the antique), ranging from movements purely in one or the other to a dazzling variety of ways of combining the two. The work illustrates a fundamental opposition in early-eighteenth-century sacred music that Bach confronts and explores in the Mass.

Handel to Tempah

Migrant City ◽  
2020 ◽  
pp. 281-306
Author(s):  
Panikos Panayi
Keyword(s):  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Twentieth Century ◽  
Eighteenth Century ◽  
National Level ◽  
Cultural Transfer ◽  
External Influences ◽  
Short Run ◽  
Early Eighteenth Century ◽  
Evolution Of Music

This chapter explores how migrants have contributed to the evolution of music in London. Despite episodes of xenophobia in the London musical scene, xenophilia became stronger, partly driven by the fact that both music and musicians inevitably migrate. This is so that, while national traditions of music may emerge, the process of cultural transfer involving both sound and people mean that such traditions cannot remain sealed off from external influences, even if they may develop national-level identities, at least in the short run. While music and musicians crossed European boundaries, during the twentieth century both performers and their tunes have increasingly spanned global and consequently racial divides. The German assertion that nineteenth-century Britain constituted a ‘Land ohne Musik’ (land without music), while an exaggeration, partly explains the arrival of foreign musicians to Victorian London and the eras before and since. The constant settlement and visits by musicians to the British capital since the early eighteenth century meant that London did not become a city without music, even if the tunes and those who played them often originated from abroad.

Flower Empowerment

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Nancy Stalker
Keyword(s):  
Twentieth Century ◽  
Middle Class ◽  
Fifteenth Century ◽  
Gender Norms ◽  
Japanese Women ◽  
Educational Reforms ◽  
Early Twentieth Century ◽  
Job Opportunities ◽  
Paid Labor ◽  
Upper Middle Class

Ikebana, the art of Japanese flower arranging, was first systematized in the fifteenth century, when it was limited to elite male practitioners. It was first widely practiced by women in the early twentieth century, but did not reach mass popularity until the 1950s and 1960s, with an estimated ten million students, over 99 percent of whom were female. While it was still considered by many to be a domestic skill for upper-middle-class housewives, it increasingly offered employment for postwar Japanese women as teachers and even as headmasters (iemoto) of their own schools, allowing women to engage in paid labor without violating traditional gender norms. This chapter traces the trajectory of job opportunities for women in ikebana, examining how educational reforms in the Meiji and postwar periods provided chances to study and obtain teaching licenses in ikebana and how the three largest schools—Ikenobo, Ohara, and Sogetsu—increasingly professionalized their corps of teachers.

Gratitude in the Early Eighteenth Century

2020 ◽  
pp. 77-105
Author(s):  
Ashraf H. A. Rushdy
Keyword(s):  
Eighteenth Century ◽  
Seventeenth Century ◽  
Self Interest ◽  
Early Eighteenth Century

This chapter explores the writings of four philosophers who were either directly or implicitly responding to the philosophers of the seventeenth century discussed in the previous chapter. The chapter looks at two philosophers who seem to adopt parts of the Hobbesian worldview—Pufendorf and Mandeville—and two who explicitly contest it: Shaftesbury and Butler. The primary questions they ask involve human motivations—whether they can be altruistic or must be acts of self-interest or self-love.

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