scholarly journals XVIII. Observations on the permanency of the variation of the compass at Jamaica. In a letter from Mr. James Robertson to the Right Hon, Sir Joseph Banks, K. B. P. R. S. &c

1806 ◽  
Vol 96 ◽  
pp. 348-356
Keyword(s):  
The State ◽  
Arts And Sciences ◽  
Law Of Nature ◽  
The Arts ◽  
The Subject ◽  
The Right ◽  
Different Parts

Sir, As any improvement, or discovery in the arts and sciences, will, I am persuaded, experience your favourable reception, I have the honour of submitting to your consideration a dis­covery I have made on a subject, the state of which can only be ascertained by observations made from time to time, as it is not regulated by any known law of nature: I mean the variation of the magnetical needle. This discovery may not only excite others to make, and repeat, observations in different parts of the globe, but, by causing this changeable quality to be better understood, may contribute to the benefit of navigation, and commerce, as well as to the advancement of a more particular knowledge of the subject.

scholarly journals Art. IX.—The Medical Art amongst the Chinese

1837 ◽  
Vol 4 (7) ◽  
pp. 154-171
Author(s):  
C. Gutzlaff
Keyword(s):  
The State ◽  
Public Utility ◽  
Chinese Government ◽  
Present Moment ◽  
Asiatic Society ◽  
The People ◽  
The Subject ◽  
The Right ◽  
Chinese Empire ◽  
Different Parts

“The following paper on the state of the Medical Art amongst the Chinese, has been recently presented to the Royal Asiatic Society, by the Right Hon. Alexander Johnston. He, as Chairman of the Committee of Correspondence of the Society, has for some time instituted a variety of inquiries into the state of that art, in the different parts of Asia. This paper has been sent to him by the Rev. Mr. Gutzlaff, the intelligent and zealous Protestant Missionary in China, who forwarded to him, some time ago, the very curious and interesting analysis of the Chinese work, called the Yi She, which has been published in the last number of the Journal. The extent of the Chinese empire; the number of its inhabitants; the progress which they are known to have made from the earliest times in arts, manufactures, agriculture, and different branches of civilization; the nature and value of the mineral and vegetable productions of their country; the knowledge which they possess of the properties and uses of those productions; the variety of the climates to which they are subject in the different parts of the empire; the nature of the numerous diseases from which they suffer; the jealousy with which the Chinese Government have hitherto excluded foreigners from all intercourse with the people, and the obstacles which they have opposed to the acquisition by foreigners of all authentic information relative to their country, render a paper of this description, at the present moment, when the Parliament of Great Britain has opened the trade with China to all British subjects, an object of interest and public utility, the more so, as Sir Alexander Johnston, having submitted it for perusal to Sir Henry Halford, has received from that gentleman, who is so distinguished in his profession, and has transmitted to China a set of queries which are calculated to elicit from the Chinese such information as is deemed valuable by those who are professionally acquainted with the subject in this country.”

The Mystery of Freedom

2020 ◽  
pp. 192-206
Author(s):  
Pilar López de Santa María
Keyword(s):  
The State ◽  
Theory Of Knowledge ◽  
The Will ◽  
The Subject ◽  
Different Parts

Freedom is the focus of the first of the writings included in The Two Fundamental Problems of Ethics. The attention that Schopenhauer devotes to the subject does not stop here, however, since freedom appears recurrently in different parts of his system. It is linked to his theory of knowledge, metaphysics, aesthetics, and the denial of the will. This chapter follows that track and examines the presence in different contexts of Schopenhauerian thought of a freedom that is so undeniable as unexplainable. In this way will be shown Schopenhauer’s transition from the freedom of the voluntas to the freedom of noluntas [non-willing] and the state of great liberation that occurs because the will frees itself from itself. It is a transition that begins and ends at the same point: mystery

Reflections on the existence of the science of criminal law

2021 ◽  
pp. 156-161
Author(s):  
I. Mytrofanov
Keyword(s):  
Social Justice ◽  
Public Relations ◽  
Criminal Law ◽  
The State ◽  
Crime And Punishment ◽  
Self Defense ◽  
Illegal Acts ◽  
The Subject ◽  
The Individual ◽  
The Right

The article states that today the issues of the role (purpose) of criminal law, the structure of criminal law knowledge remain debatable. And at this time, questions arise: whose interests are protected by criminal law, is it able to ensure social justice, including the proportionality of the responsibility of the individual and the state for criminally illegal actions? The purpose of the article is to comprehend the problems of criminal law knowledge about the phenomena that shape the purpose of criminal law as a fair regulator of public relations, aimed primarily at restoring social justice for the victim, suspect (accused), society and the state, the proportionality of punishment and states for criminally illegal acts. The concepts of “crime” and “punishment” are discussed in science. As a result, there is no increase in knowledge, but an increase in its volume due to new definitions of existing criminal law phenomena. It is stated that the science of criminal law has not been able to explain the need for the concept of criminal law, as the role and name of this area is leveled to the framework terminology, which currently contains the categories of crime and punishment. Sometimes it is not even unreasonable to think that criminal law as an independent and meaningful concept does not exist or has not yet appeared. There was a custom to characterize this right as something derived from the main and most important branches of law, the criminal law of the rules of subsidiary and ancillary nature. Scholars do not consider criminal law, for example, as the right to self-defense. Although the right to self-defense is paramount and must first be guaranteed to a person who is almost always left alone with the offender, it is the least represented in law, developed in practice and available to criminal law subjects. Today, for example, there are no clear rules for the necessary protection of property rights or human freedoms. It is concluded that the science of criminal law should develop knowledge that will reveal not only the content of the subject of this branch of law, but will focus it on new properties to determine the illegality of acts and their consequences, exclude the possibility of using its means by legal entities against each other.

An appendix to Mr. Ware’s paper on vision

1832 ◽  
Vol 1 ◽  
pp. 454-455
Keyword(s):  
The Other ◽  
Watch Glass ◽  
Early Age ◽  
Learning To Read ◽  
The Subject ◽  
The Common ◽  
The Right ◽  
The Mind ◽  
Different Parts ◽  
Marble Surface

The author remarks, that Mr. Ware’s observations with regard to short-sightedness, being in general merely the consequence of habit acquired at an early age, is conformable with his own experience in general, and that he himself is a particular instance of natural long-sightedness gradually converted into confirmed short sight. He very well remembers first learning to read, at the common age of four or five years, and that at that time he could see the usual inscriptions across a wide church; but that at the age of nine or ten years he could no longer distinguish the same letters at the same distance, without the assistance of a watch-glass, which has the effect of one slightly concave. In a few years more the same glass was not sufficiently powerful; but yet his degree of short-sightedness was so inconsiderable, that he yielded to the dissuasion of his friends from using the common concave glasses till he was upwards of thirty years of age, when No. 2 was barely sufficient; and he very shortly had recourse to No. 3. In the course of a few years an increase of the defect rendered it necessary for him to employ glasses still deeper, and his sight soon required No. 5, where it has remained stationary to the present time. From the progress which Sir Charles Blagden has observed in his own short-sightedness, he is of opinion that it would have been accelerated by an earlier use of concave glasses, and might have been retarded, or perhaps prevented altogether, by attention to read and write with his book or paper as far distant as might be from his eyes. In this communication he takes the same opportunity of adding an experiment made many years since on the subject of vision, with a view to decide how far the similarity of the images received by the two eyes contribute to the impression made on the mind, that they arise from only one object. In the house where he then resided, was a marble surface ornamented with fluting, in alternate ridges and concavities. When his eyes were directed to these, at the distance of nine inches, they could be seen with perfect distinctness. When the optic axes were directed to a point at some distance behind, the ridges seen by one eye became confounded with the impression of concavities made upon the other, and occasioned the uneasy sensation usual in squinting. But when the eyes were directed to a point still more distant, the impression of one ridge on the right eye corresponded with that made with an adjacent ridge upon the left eye, so that the fluting then appeared distinct and single as at first, but the object appeared at double its real distance, and apparently magnified in that proportion. Though the different parts of the fluting were of the same form, their colours were not exactly alike, and this occasioned some degree of confusion when attention was paid to this degree of dissimilarity.

scholarly journals Głos w dyskusji o zaniechaniu ścigania jako sposobie reakcji na przestępstwo w prawnie dopuszczalnym procesie karnym

2021 ◽  
Vol 29 (3) ◽  
pp. 89-109
Author(s):  
Michał Wojciech Basa
Keyword(s):  
Cost Effectiveness ◽  
Restorative Justice ◽  
Due Process ◽  
The State ◽  
Social Harm ◽  
Trial Subject ◽  
Instrumental Values ◽  
The Subject ◽  
The Right

The subject of considerations is an attempt to describe and assess the institution of cessation of prosecution, resulting from reaching an agreement, as reaction to crime. The effective consensus-driven approach ought to be aimed at combining court instruments and values with the axiological basis of agreement-based litigation (namely, principle of restorative justice), and also with legal measures which allow to mete out a due penal reaction or, frequently, the cessation of prosecution. In case of proceedings regarding misdemeanours, where there is a possibility of eliminating the consequences of the crime solely by compensatory actions within victim-perpetrator relation, the state ought to waive the execution of ius puniendi. What should constitute the limit of waiving the right to punish is a combination of circumstances such as: negligible degree of social harm, reaching a plea agreement that includes the manner of compensation, along with executing thereof. Then, the sufficient reaction to crime is redressing damage or compensation for the harm suffered and the prosecutor’s decision to cease prosecution. The stage of judicial proceeding does not have to and should not be merely a forum for reaching and executing court agreements. The described variant of cessation of the prosecution combines instrumental values, such as the promptness and cost-effectiveness of proceedings with non-instrumental ones, such as due process and implementation of restorative justice. Through only partial waiver of the trial subject implementation, cessation of the proceedings may constitute a compromise between legalistic values and those of judicial opportunism.

scholarly journals The Severan Commemorative Relief at Cyrene. The portraiture

1977 ◽  
Vol 8 ◽  
pp. 19-25 ◽  
Author(s):  
A. Bonanno
Keyword(s):  
Annual Report ◽  
British Museum ◽  
The State ◽  
Full Description ◽  
Comprehensive Description ◽  
South Side ◽  
Doctoral Thesis ◽  
Architectural Elements ◽  
The Subject ◽  
The Right

On my first visit to Cyrene in summer 1972 I was so intrigued by the figurative relief standing on the south side of the so-called Valley Street, immediately to the east of the modern village of Shahat, that I decided to include it in my doctoral thesis. I visited the site in the distinguished company of the late Prof. D. E. Strong, who was then my research supervisor, and Mr. Philip Kenrick. We spent together some hours in front of this fascinating monument discussing a number of points concerning the architecture of the building to which it belonged, the identification of the figures, the iconography of the then hypothetical portraits, and the reading of the inscription. A full description and discussion of the monument were given by Professor Strong in a lecture delivered at the British Museum on the occasion of the opening of the Exhibition of Libyan Antiquities on 14th June, 1973, and later published in the Society for Libyan Studies Report. I returned to Cyrene in summer 1973 in order to make a more thorough examination of the relief and to produce a number of detailed photographs of the heads. The contents of this article are the result of these observations and the stimulating discussions I had with Professor Strong on the subject.For a comprehensive description of the relief I refer the reader to Strong's contribution in the Fourth Annual Report, but it is appropriate to recapitulate briefly. The relief in question constituted the figured frieze of the entablature of a monumental gateway resting on Corinthian columns. Beneath the frieze, which must have been more than 11m long, ran an inscription in two lines of standard monumental Greek letters. All the architectural elements, including the frieze, are carved on a very gritty and shelly limestone. The state of preservation is very poor: the figures on the right hand block are almost completely lost and elsewhere heads and limbs have fallen off, in some cases being cemented back. The best preserved are the central figures, but even here the sugary limestone has eroded to some extent (Fig.Ia).

ZBYCIE AKCJI LUB UDZIAŁÓW W SPÓŁKACH BĘDĄCYCH WŁAŚCICIELAMI NIERUCHOMOŚCI ROLNYCH – WYBRANE PROBLEMY

2021 ◽  
pp. 9-21
Author(s):  
Jerzy Bieluk
Keyword(s):  
Criminal Liability ◽  
The State ◽  
Agricultural System ◽  
Management Board ◽  
Contingent Liabilities ◽  
Commercial Company ◽  
The Subject ◽  
The Right ◽  
A Company ◽  
Statutory Regulation

Pursuant to Article 3a sec. 1 of the Act of 11th of April 2003 on Shaping the Agricultural System, the National Support Centre for Agriculture, acting on behalf of the State Treasury, has the right of pre-emption of shares in a commercial company within the meaning of the Act of 15th of September 2000, Code of Commercial Companies, if such a company is an owner or a perpetual usufructuary of either agricultural property with an area of at least 5 ha or agricultural properties with a total area of at least 5 ha. NSCA is not notified about its right of pre-emption by the shareholder but by the company whose shares are the subject of the conditional sale agreement. At the same time, the act imposes several obligations on the company’s management board related to the preparation of documents attached to the notification, the most far-reaching of which is the submission, under pain of criminal liability, of a statement on the amount of contingent liabilities of the company. The statutory regulation overburdens the company’s management board with the obligations related to the preparation of the notification and makes the trading of shares in commercial companies, owning or being perpetual usufructors of agricultural property, dependent on the actions of their management board. The management board may block the sale of shares. Such a concept is incomprehensible, illogical, and requires immediate modification.

Types of Administrative Sanctions for Tax Offences

2018 ◽  
Vol 24 (2) ◽  
pp. 145-150
Author(s):  
Petar Ivanov Baldzhiev
Keyword(s):  
The State ◽  
Tax Legislation ◽  
State Administration ◽  
The Subject ◽  
Administrative Sanction ◽  
The Right ◽  
Administrative Sanctions ◽  
Administrative Responsibility ◽  
Legal Entities

Abstract The Bulgarian law regulates the administrative sanction as a specific sanction for noncompliance with the approved order in the state administration. Its imposition is considered to be an expression of state compulsion and it represents a realization of the administrative responsibility. The article aims to examine the peculiarities of the administrative sanctions imposed in the cases of tax offences, in regard to the specificity of the tax entities. The legislator has provided various administrative sanctions which are mainly systematized in the Administrative Violations and Sanctions Act. Tax legislation does not lay down new types of administrative sanctions but it uses the types provided by the Administrative Violations and Sanctions Act, and namely: public reprimand, fine, temporary deprivation of the right to be exercised a particular profession or to be carried out a particular activity, forfeiture in favour of the state, sanctions in the form of penalty payments imposed on legal entities and sole traders. The typical characteristics and peculiarities of the imposed for tax offences sanctions are the subject of the analysis

scholarly journals Islamic View of Women Leadership as Head of the State: A Critical Analysis

2012 ◽  
pp. 195-205
Author(s):  
Mohammad Elius
Keyword(s):  
Industrial Revolution ◽  
The State ◽  
Legal Rights ◽  
Islamic State ◽  
Crucial Point ◽  
Economic Rights ◽  
The Arts ◽  
The Holy Quran ◽  
The Subject ◽  
Islamic View

Since the beginning of the industrial revolution in the West, women have been given certain social, political and economic rights after decades of struggle which Islam had confirmed unequivocally fourteen hundred years ago. Islam has clarified the legal rights and obligations of both men and women in such a balanced way that women cannot complain about their weakness or inferiority and men cannot claim their superiority over women. But this position of women has been the subject to repeated controversy because of the misinterpretations of issues regarding women in our society. This paper deals with a very crucial point, women as head of the state in a Muslim/Islamic state in the light of the Holy Quran and the traditions of Prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon him). An attempt has been made to find out the real position of women vis-à-vis the concept of leadership in Islam as objectively as possible to reach a balanced view. Before initiating the discussion on the main topic, that is, the leadership by women, we will give a brief description of women’s position in society and their participation in public life. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/afj.v4i0.12941 The Arts Faculty Journal Vol.4 July 2010-June 2011 pp.195-205

Treatment of Enemy Aliens

1918 ◽  
Vol 12 (1) ◽  
pp. 27-55 ◽  
Author(s):  
James W. Garner
Keyword(s):  
National Security ◽  
International Law ◽  
The State ◽  
Alexander Hamilton ◽  
Substantial Agreement ◽  
Government Grants ◽  
German Authority ◽  
The Subject ◽  
Jay Treaty ◽  
The Right

Writers on international law are now in substantial agreement that a belligerent ought not to detain enemy subjects, confiscate their property, or subject them to any disabilities, further than such as the protection of the national security and defense may require. Vattel, in 1758, appears to have been the first writer to adopt the view that had come to be generally held by publicists at the time the present war broke out. “The sovereign,” he said, “who declares war has not the right to detain the subjects of the enemy who are found within his state, nor their effects. They have come to his country in public faith; in permitting them to enter and live in the territory, he has tacitly promised them all liberty and surety for their return. A suitable time should be given them to withdraw with their goods; and if they stay beyond the time prescribed, it is lawful that they should be treated as enemies, though as disarmed enemies.” Alexander Hamilton, in defending the Jay Treaty of 1794, declared that the right of holding property in a country always implies a duty on the part of its government to protect that property and to secure to the owner full enjoyment of it. “Whenever, therefore,” he added, “a government grants permission to foreigners to acquire property within its territories, or to bring and deposit it there, it tacitly promises protection and security — the property of a foreigner placed in another country, by permission of its laws, may be justly regarded as a deposit of which the society is the trustee.” Westlake, in 1907, adverting to the numerous treaty stipulations on the subject, remarked that they might be deemed to amount to “a general agreement, on the part of governments, that modern international law forbids making prisoners the persons of enemy subjects in the territory at the outbreak of war, or, saving the right of expulsion in case of apprehended danger to the state, refusing them the right of continuous residence during good behavior.” Referring to the right of expulsion, Ullmann, a respectable German authority, remarks that expulsion can be resorted to against the subjects of the enemy state, but only after a suitable delay has been offered in order to enable those affected to wind up their affairs.

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