We examine and assess deterministic chaos as an observable. First, we present the development of model ecological systems. We illustrate how to apply the Kolmogorov theorem to obtain limits on the parameters in the system, which assure the existence of either stable equilibrium point or stable limit cycle behavior in the phase space of two-dimensional (2D) dynamical systems. We also illustrate the method of deriving conditions using the linear stability analysis. We apply these procedures on some basic existing model ecological systems. Then, we propose four model ecological systems to study the dynamical chaos (chaos and intermittent chaos) and cycles. Dynamics of two predation and two competition models have been explored. The predation models have been designed by linking two predator–prey communities, which differ from one another in one essential way: the predator in the first is specialist and that in the second is generalist. The two competition models pertain to two distinct competition processes: interference and exploitative competition. The first competition model was designed by linking two predator–prey communities through inter-specific competition. The other competition model assumes that a cycling predator–prey community is successfully invaded by a predator with linear functional response and coexists with the community as a result of differences in the functional responses of the two predators. The main criterion behind the selection of these two model systems for the present study was that they represent diversity of ecological interactions in the real world in a manner which preserves mathematical tractability. For investigating the dynamic behavior of the model systems, the following tools are used: (i) calculation of the basin boundary structures, (ii) performing two-dimensional parameter scans using two of the parameters in the system as base variables, (iii) drawing the bifurcation diagrams, and (iv) performing time series analysis and drawing the phase space diagrams. The results of numerical simulation are used to distinguish between chaotic and cyclic behaviors of the systems.The conclusion that we obtain from the first two model systems (predation models) is that it would be difficult to capture chaos in the wild because ecological systems appear to change their attractors in response to changes in the system parameters quite frequently. The detection of chaos in the real data does not seem to be a possibility as what is present in ecological systems is not robust chaos but short-term recurrent chaos. The first competition model (interference competition) shares this conclusion with those of predation ones. The model with exploitative competition suggests that deterministic chaos may be robust in certain systems, but it would not be observed as the constituent populations frequently execute excursions to extinction-sized densities. Thus, no matter how good the data characteristics and analysis techniques are, dynamical chaos may continue to elude ecologists. On the other hand, the models suggest that the observation of cyclical dynamics in nature is the most likely outcome.
Nonuniform Chaotic Dynamics and Effects of Noise in Biochemical Systems
