Children's Beliefs about Control, Means-ends, and Agency: Developmental Differences during Middle Childhood

1988 ◽  
Vol 11 (3) ◽  
pp. 369-388 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ellen A. Skinner ◽  
Michael Chapman ◽  
Paul B. Baltes
Keyword(s):  
Age Differences ◽  
Middle Childhood ◽  
Perceived Control ◽  
Developmental Differences ◽  
Control Beliefs ◽  
Future Research ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Agency Beliefs ◽  
Children’S Behaviour ◽  
Children's Beliefs

A new action-theoretical conceptualisation was used to study developmental differences in children's generalised perceived control. According to this conceptualisation, controland action-related beliefs are multidimensional and may include not only (1) expectancies about the extent to which an agent (e.g. the self) can obtain desired outcomes (referred to as control beliefs), but also (2) expectancies about the extent to which certain causes or means produce outcomes (means-ends beliefs), as well as (3) expectancies about the extent to which the agent possesses the potential means (agency beliefs). Cross-sectional age differences in these three sets of beliefs were studied in 240 boys and girls from age 7 to 12. The results of age comparisons in mean level indicated that: (1) perceived control of positive events is greater than that of negative events at all ages; (2) the categories of means-ends beliefs (i.e. for the causes effort, attributes, powerful others, luck, unknown) are increasingly differentiated from each other as to their level of perceived effectiveness; (3) agency beliefs for effort, attributes, and powerful others are high across middle childhood. The increase in the perceived accessibility of powerful others is an especially noteworthy finding. Surprisingly few sex differences were found, with the exception that boys rates the cause "attributes" as more effective than girls. The pattern of age differences in control, means-ends, and agency beliefs not only adds to our understanding of the development of generalized expectancies involving control and action across middle childhood, but also holds promise for future research on the origins of these beliefs and on how they influence children's behaviour and action.

scholarly journals Perceived Control and Aging: A Mini-Review and Directions for Future Research

Gerontology ◽  
2017 ◽  
Vol 63 (5) ◽  
pp. 435-442 ◽  
Author(s):  
Stephanie A. Robinson ◽  
Margie E. Lachman
Keyword(s):  
Sex Education ◽  
Perceived Control ◽  
Later Life ◽  
Well Being ◽  
Reciprocal Relationship ◽  
Control Beliefs ◽  
Future Research ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
As Stress ◽  
Health And Well Being

This brief review on perceived control and aging is organized according to 3 perspectives of research involving description, explanation, and modification. An extensive body of literature has utilized cross-sectional and correlational methods to describe the sociodemographic variations and outcomes associated with perceived control. This work has focused on differences in perceived control as a function of age, sex, education, socioeconomic status, and culture and has identified positive associations with many aging-related outcomes involving health and well-being. With growing evidence regarding the health benefits of perceived control in the context of a declining sense of control with aging, there has been an increased effort to uncover the mechanisms involved, with the hopes of developing methods to maintain and/or promote adaptive control beliefs throughout adulthood. Through longitudinal and experimental work, researchers are beginning to clarify the directionality and elucidate the mechanisms to explain the associations. Recent evidence from longitudinal studies shows that control beliefs have an impact on subsequent changes in health. Yet, the findings suggest that it is not a unidirectional relationship. A conceptual model suggesting an ongoing reciprocal relationship between perceived control and health and well-being is discussed. Research examining the mechanisms that link perceived control to aging-related outcomes can help to inform and to develop effective interventions that are tailored to the individual's specific barriers and goals. We consider new directions for research, including more attention to intraindividual variability and reactivity to daily challenges, such as stress, with the goal of advancing our understanding of how perceived control contributes to aging-related outcomes. More work is needed to develop strategies to enhance control beliefs in later life. Although it will not always be possible to modify control beliefs, researchers can take these beliefs into account when developing interventions. A personalized approach is recommended as a way to tailor interventions that are compatible with individuals' beliefs about control to facilitate adaptive behavior change. Conclusions focus on selected issues and considerations for future research.

Individual Change in Perceived Control over 20 Years

1993 ◽  
Vol 16 (2) ◽  
pp. 305-322 ◽  
Author(s):  
Margaret Gatz ◽  
Michele J. Karel
Keyword(s):  
Older Adults ◽  
Perceived Control ◽  
Middle Age ◽  
Cohort Effect ◽  
Personal Control ◽  
Developmental Differences ◽  
Developmental Changes ◽  
Individual Change ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Historical Reality

Perceptions of personal control were studied in 1267 individuals who represented four generations of families participating in a large longitudinal study spanning 1971 to 1991. Cross-sectional, longitudinal, and sequential analytic strategies were employed. Over 20 years, mean levels of personal control became more internal in the 560 respondents who participated at all four times of measurement, probably as a reflection of contextual factors in the culture. Developmental changes toward greater internality were indicated for young adults as they progressed into middle age. Cross-sectional differences in middle-aged and older adults did not appear to represent developmental differences. The oldest generation of women was consistently the most external subgroup, suggesting a cohort effect reflective of their socio-historical reality.

Is the ratio of flow-mediated dilation and shear rate a statistically sound approach to normalization in cross-sectional studies on endothelial function?

2009 ◽  
Vol 107 (6) ◽  
pp. 1893-1899 ◽  
Author(s):  
Greg Atkinson ◽  
Alan M. Batterham ◽  
Mark A. Black ◽  
Nigel T. Cable ◽  
Nicola D. Hopkins ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Shear Rate ◽  
Endothelial Function ◽  
Age Differences ◽  
Age Groups ◽  
Area Under The Curve ◽  
Future Research ◽  
Flow Mediated Dilation ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Age Cohorts ◽  
Statistical Assumptions

It has been deemed important to normalize flow-mediated dilation (FMD), a marker of endothelial function, for between-subject differences in the eliciting shear rate (SR) stimulus. Conventionally, FMD is divided by the area under the curve of the SR stimulus. In the context of a cross-sectional comparison across different age cohorts, we examined whether this ratio approach adhered to established statistical assumptions necessary for reliable normalization. To quantify brachial artery FMD and area under the curve of SR, forearm cuff inflation to suprasystolic pressure was administered for 5 min to 16 boys aged 10.9 yr (SD 0.3), 48 young men aged 25.3 yr (SD 4.2), and 15 older men aged 57.5 yr (SD 4.3). Mean differences between age groups were statistically significant ( P < 0.001) for nonnormalized FMD [children: 10.4% (SD 5.4), young adults: 7.5% (SD 2.9), older adults: 5.6% (SD 2.0)] but not for ratio-normalized FMD ( P = 0.10). Moreover, all assumptions necessary for reliable use of ratio-normalization were violated, including regression slopes between SR and FMD that had y-intercepts greater than zero ( P < 0.05), nonlinear and unstable relations between the normalized ratios and SR, skewed data distributions, and heteroscedastic variance. Logarithmic transformation of SR and FMD before ratio calculation improved adherence to these assumptions and resulted in age differences similar to the nonnormalized data ( P = 0.03). In conclusion, although ratio normalization of FMD altered findings about age differences in endothelial function, this could be explained by violation of statistical assumptions. We recommend that exploration of these assumptions should be routine in future research. If the relationship between SR and FMD is generally found to be weak or nonlinear or variable between samples, then ratio normalization should not be applied.

scholarly journals A comparative-longitudinal study of action-control beliefs and school performance: On the role of context

2001 ◽  
Vol 25 (3) ◽  
pp. 237-245 ◽  
Author(s):  
Todd D. Little ◽  
David F. Lopez ◽  
Gabriele Oettingen ◽  
Paul B. Baltes
Keyword(s):  
School Performance ◽  
Cross Sectional Study ◽  
Control Beliefs ◽  
Personal Agency ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
East Berlin ◽  
West Berlin ◽  
Agency Beliefs ◽  
And Performance ◽  
The Impact

In a previous cross-sectional study comparing East and West Berlin children (Oettingen, Little, Lindenburger, & Baltes, 1994), we found that children in West Berlin had higher beliefs in their own performance potential than in East Berlin, but that the correlation between these personal agency beliefs and actual school performance was stronger in East Berlin than in West Berlin. In this study, we report on a three-wave longitudinal follow-up of the original samples wherein we examined the impact of change in the East Berlin education system, which adopted the West Berlin system between the second and third measurement occasions. As expected, we found that the context change did not affect the East Berlin children’s (grades 2-5, n = 198) lower mean levels of agency beliefs; however, the changes did reduce the correlations between the beliefs and performance to the levels observed in West Berlin (n = 381).

A comparison of perceived control beliefs between Chinese and American students

2005 ◽  
Vol 29 (1) ◽  
pp. 14-23 ◽  
Author(s):  
Yuming Liu ◽  
Steven R. Yussen
Keyword(s):  
Cultural Differences ◽  
School Performance ◽  
Perceived Control ◽  
Grade Level ◽  
Control Beliefs ◽  
Developmental Patterns ◽  
Global Control ◽  
American Students ◽  
Agency Beliefs ◽  
Perceived Control Beliefs

This study examines the developmental patterns of perceived control beliefs among a total of 1720 urban Chinese, rural Chinese, and American students in second through sixth grade. Children’s perceived control beliefs were measured with the Revised Control, Agency, and Means-end Interview (CAMI). The results show that the latent structures of perceived control beliefs were comparable among the three groups of students. The increase in grade level was more important than cultural differences in the development of agency and global control expectancy beliefs. However, there was no evidence that the increase in grade level was more important than cultural differences in the development of means-end beliefs. The developmental patterns of global control expectancy and agency beliefs were similar between Chinese and American students across the elementary school years. The correlations between global control expectancy and the dimensions of agency beliefs and school performance were stronger than those between the dimensions of means-end beliefs and school performance among the three groups of students. Also, the relationships between the dimensions of perceived control beliefs and performance were stronger in language arts than in math. The unique features of the perceptions of “luck”, “ability”, and “effort” among Chinese students were also discussed in terms of the alternative bases of philosophy and religion, the nature of school feedback, and the likelihood of quality experiences in parent–child mediated interactions.

scholarly journals The diagnostic odyssey of autism: a cross-sectional study of 3 age cohorts of children from the 2016–2018 National Survey of Children’s Health

2021 ◽  
Vol 15 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Allison Hanley ◽  
Quynh C. Nguyen ◽  
Deborah Golant Badawi ◽  
Jie Chen ◽  
Tianzhou Ma ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
National Survey ◽  
Middle Childhood ◽  
Children With Autism ◽  
Children's Health ◽  
Children’S Health ◽  
Future Research ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Age Cohorts ◽  
First Diagnosis ◽  
Developmental Services

Abstract Background Autism prevalence has increased rapidly in recent years, however, nationally representative estimates on the ages of first identification and intervention are out of date. Objectives: (1) To estimate the ages at which children with autism receive their first diagnosis, intervention plan, and developmental services; and (2) To evaluate differences in ages at events by birth cohort and sociodemographic characteristics. Methods Using cross-sectional data from the 2016–2018 National Survey of Children’s Health (NSCH), we examined associations via linear regression among a sample of 2303 children aged 2–17 years old, who had ever been diagnosed with autism and either (1) ever had a plan for special education or early intervention, or (2) ever received special services to meet developmental needs. Exposures included age cohort, child, household and healthcare provider characteristics. Results Most children in the study sample (n = 2303) were over age 6 years, male, of non-Hispanic white race/ethnicity and had mild/moderate autism. Mean ages (years) at first diagnosis was 4.56 (SE = 0.13); first plan was 4.43 (SE = 0.11); and first services was 4.10 (SE = 0.11). After adjustment for exposures and survey year, the middle childhood cohort was 18 months older at first intervention (β = 1.49, 95% CI, 1.18–1.81), and adolescents were 38 months older at first diagnosis (β = 3.16, 95% CI, 2.72–3.60) compared to those in early childhood. Younger ages at events were observed among: Hispanic/Latinx as compared to white children, those with moderate or severe symptoms as compared to mild symptoms, and children who received their diagnosis from a specialist as compared to psychologists or psychiatrists. Conclusions Children with autism receive their first diagnosis, intervention plans and developmental services at younger ages than they had in the past. Future research is needed to identify the mechanisms for these improvements in early identification and intervention to accelerate additional progress.

Exploring Associations Between Playgroup Attendance and Early Childhood Development at School Entry in Australia: A Cross-Sectional Population-Level Study

2019 ◽  
Vol 57 (2) ◽  
pp. 475-503 ◽  
Author(s):  
Alanna Sincovich ◽  
Tess Gregory ◽  
Yasmin Harman-Smith ◽  
Sally Anne Brinkman
Keyword(s):  
Early Childhood Development ◽  
Population Level ◽  
Developmental Differences ◽  
School Entry ◽  
Childhood Development ◽  
Future Research ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Data Set ◽  
Developmental Domains ◽  
Before School

Despite widespread utilization, research exploring associations between playgroup and child development is scarce. We analyzed a national data set measuring the holistic development of children aged 4 to 6 years who commenced school in Australia in 2015 (n = 104,767), the Australian Early Development Census, to explore developmental differences between children who did and did not attend playgroup before school. Children who attended playgroup had better development at school entry relative to those who had not attended playgroup, after adjustment for a range of confounding factors. These differences were observed across all five developmental domains and were universal to children from a range of backgrounds. Results support the need for future research to explore the causal effects of playgroup on children’s development.

A new look at nursing home residents’ depressive symptoms: the role of basic versus expanded everyday competence

2016 ◽  
Vol 29 (1) ◽  
pp. 165-175 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mona Diegelmann ◽  
Hans-Werner Wahl ◽  
Oliver K. Schilling ◽  
Carl-Philipp Jansen ◽  
Katrin Classen ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Nursing Home ◽  
Depressive Symptoms ◽  
Perceived Control ◽  
Structural Equation ◽  
Depression Scale ◽  
Nursing Home Residents ◽  
Equation Modeling ◽  
Future Research ◽  
Cross Sectional

ABSTRACTBackground:Depressive symptoms are highly prevalent in nursing home (NH) residents. The relationship between depressive symptoms and everyday competence in terms of basic (BaCo) and expanded everyday competence (ExCo; see Baltes et al., 2001) in the NH setting is, however, not clear. Applying Lewinsohn's depression model, we examined how residents’ BaCo and ExCo relate to their depressive symptoms. Furthermore, we investigated the mediating role of perceived control.Methods:Cross-sectional data from 196 residents (Mage = 83.7 years, SD = 9.4 years) of two German NHs were analyzed. Study variables were assessed by the Geriatric Depression Scale-Residential (GDS-12R), maximal gait speed (BaCo), proxy ratings of residents’ in-home activity participation, and self-initiated social contact done by staff (ExCo). Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used and a simulation study was included to determine power and potential estimation bias.Results:At the descriptive level, one quarter of the residents showed symptoms of depression according to the GDS-12R cut-off criterion. Residents’ BaCo and ExCo were independently and equally strongly associated with their depressive symptoms in the SEM analysis. These findings were affected neither by cognitive impairment, sex, nor age. Perceived control mediated between BaCo but not ExCo and depressive symptoms.Conclusion:Future research needs to follow the connection between residents’ everyday competence and their depressive symptoms longitudinally to better understand the underlying mechanisms.

scholarly journals The Behavior of Using Masks during the Coronavirus Disease 19 Pandemic in Malang Regency, Indonesia: Application of Theory of Planned Behavior and Social Support

2021 ◽  
Vol 9 (B) ◽  
pp. 1006-1010
Author(s):  
Riza Fikriana ◽  
Al Afik ◽  
Mila Maula Marinda
Keyword(s):  
Social Support ◽  
Theory Of Planned Behavior ◽  
Planned Behavior ◽  
Peer Support ◽  
Perceived Control ◽  
Simple Random Sampling ◽  
Control Beliefs ◽  
Normative Beliefs ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Perceived Power

BACKGROUND: The use of masks during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is one of the efforts to prevent its transmission. However, it was found that the behavior of the use of masks in the community is still low. AIM: This study aims to analyze people’s behavior in the use of masks with the theory of planned behavior and social support approach. METHODS: Research using a cross-sectional design. The study was conducted on 90 people in Malang, Indonesia, taken with simple random sampling techniques. Variables measured are behavioral beliefs, evaluation of behavioral outcomes, normative beliefs, motivation to comply, control beliefs, perceived power, attitude, subjective norm, perceived control, intention, family support, peer support, and mask usage behavior. Research instrument is questionnaire. The data were analyzed using a linear regression test. RESULTS: Results showed that the behavior of mask use according to the theory of planned behavior was significantly influenced by perceived power (p < 0.001), normative beliefs (p = 0.019), and intention to perform the behavior (p = 0.041). While in the social support component, peer support obtained a significant effect (p = 0.002). CONCLUSION: As an effort to improve the behavior of the use of masks in the community during the COVID-19 pandemic, it is necessary to strengthen perceived power, normative beliefs, and intentions accompanied by good peer support so that the community complies with the use of masks for the prevention of transmission.

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