Effects of Mound Versus Flat-Ground Pitching and Distance on Arm Mechanics and Elbow Torque in High School Pitchers

Background: Although the monitoring of a pitcher’s throwing arm workload has become a hot topic in both research and the pitching world, the impact of mound height and distance still remains unclear. Purpose: To compare the kinetics and kinematics between pitches from a mound and flat ground at 2 different distances. Study Design: Descriptive laboratory study. Methods: A total of 21 healthy high school varsity baseball pitchers (age, 16.2 ± 1.3 years; weight, 73.6 ± 11.0 kg; height, 181.3 ± 6.4 cm) participated in this study. Players were fitted with a motusBASEBALL sensor and sleeve. Each pitcher was instructed to pitch 5 fastballs under 4 conditions: mound at 60.5 ft (regulation distance), flat ground at 60.5 ft, mound at 50.5 ft, and flat ground at 50.5 ft. Linear mixed-effects models were used to account for both intra- and interplayer variability. A multivariable model was used to evaluate the association of mound pitching, flat-ground pitching, and their distances (50.5 ft and 60.5 ft), and their interaction to arm speed, arm slot, arm rotation, elbow varus torque, and ball velocity. Results: There were no statistically significant effects of mound, flat-ground, or distance variation on arm speed or shoulder rotation. Arm slot was significantly higher (+3.0°; P = .02) on pitches from the mound at 60.5 ft compared with 50.5 ft. Elbow varus torque was lower (–1.5 N·m; P = .02) on mound pitches at 60.5 ft compared with 50.5 ft. Pitches thrown from the mound displayed significantly faster ball velocity compared with flat-ground pitches at both distances ( P < .01 for both), with pitches at 60.5 ft having higher velocity (+0.7 m/s; P < .01). Conclusion: Contrary to long-standing notions, the study results suggest that pitching from the mound does not significantly increase stress on the elbow compared with flat-ground pitching. Lower elbow varus torque and faster ball velocity at the regulation distance compared with the reduced distance indicate that elbow stress and ball velocity may not correlate perfectly, and radar guns may not be an appropriate surrogate measure of elbow varus torque. Clinical Relevance: A better understanding of the kinetic and kinematic implications of various throwing programs will allow for the designing of programs that are driven by objective data with aims directed toward injury prevention and rehabilitation in baseball pitchers.

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Flat Ground Throwing Results in Decreased Ball Velocity and Increased Elbow Torque Compared to Mound Throwing

Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine ◽

10.1177/2325967119s00364 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 7 (7_suppl5) ◽

pp. 2325967119S0036

Author(s):

Daphne Ling ◽

Christopher L. Camp ◽

Brittany Dowling ◽

Kathryn Mcelheny ◽

Joshua S. Dines

Keyword(s):

Good Reliability ◽

Baseball Players ◽

Linear Mixed Effects ◽

Youth Baseball ◽

Subject Variability ◽

Ball Velocity ◽

Surrogate Measure ◽

Ground Distance ◽

Evidenced Based ◽

Flat Ground

Objectives: The incidence of shoulder and elbow overuse injury continues to rise in youth baseball players. Several throwing programs designed to reduce stress on the elbow have been described, but most are not evidence-based. The aim of this study was to compare the kinetics and kinematics between mound and flat-ground pitching at two different distances with the goal of developing evidenced-based injury prevention and recovery guidelines for youth throwers. Methods: Fifteen healthy, high school varsity-level baseball pitchers (mean age 16.7 ± 0.7 yrs; height 182.2 ± 6.2 cm; weight 76.0 ± 9.4 kg;) participated in the study. Players were fitted with a motusBASEBALLTM sensor and sleeve (Motus Global, Rockville Centre, NY), which has been shown to have good reliability and correlation with in-laboratory measures. Each pitcher was asked to pitch 5 fastballs to a catcher under each of the 4 conditions: mound at 60.5 ft (regulation distance), flat ground at 60.5 ft, mound at 50.5 ft, and flat ground at 50.5 ft. For each pitch, the sensor recorded arm speed, arm slot, shoulder rotation, and elbow varus torque. Ball velocity was tracked with a radar gun (Stalker Radar, Richardson, TX). Linear mixed-effects models were used to account for both within and between-subject variability. A multivariable model was used to evaluate the association of mound pitching (vs flat ground), distance (50.5 vs 60.5 ft), and their interaction on each of the following outcomes: arm speed, arm slot, shoulder rotation, elbow varus torque, and ball velocity. Results: There were no statistically significant effects of mound vs flat ground or distance variation on both arm speed or shoulder rotation. Arm slot was significantly higher on pitches from the mound at 60.5 ft [+4.58 (95% CI: 1.26, 7.90), p=0.007]. Elbow varus torque was significantly lower on throws from the mound [-1.88 (95% CI: -3.56, -0.20), p=0.03] and from a longer distance [-2.21 (95% CI: -3.89, -0.53), p=0.01]. Pitches thrown from the mound were significantly faster compared to flat ground at both distances, with throws at 60.5 ft of greater velocity than at 50.5 ft [+1.03 (95% CI: 0.66, 1.40), p<0.001]. Please see the Table for full results. Conclusion: The findings suggest that throwing from the mound may not be higher risk compared to flat ground, contrary to long-standing notions. The lower elbow varus torque and higher arm slot, which has previously been shown to be associated with reduced stress, from throwing from the mound may even indicate a protective effect. Compared to 50.5 ft, there was lower elbow varus torque and faster ball velocity at the longer distance, indicating that elbow stress and ball velocity may not correlate perfectly, and radar guns may not be an appropriate surrogate measure of elbow varus torque. A better understanding of the kinetic and kinematic implications of various throwing programs will allow for designing programs that are based on objective data to achieve the goal of preventing injuries in young baseball players. [Table: see text]

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Association of body condition with lameness in dairy cattle: a single-farm longitudinal study

Journal of Dairy Research ◽

10.1017/s0022029921000297 ◽

2021 ◽

pp. 1-4

Author(s):

Michaela Kranepuhl ◽

Detlef May ◽

Edna Hillmann ◽

Lorenz Gygax

Keyword(s):

Body Condition ◽

Body Condition Score ◽

Mixed Effects ◽

Mixed Effects Models ◽

Linear Mixed Effects Models ◽

Linear Mixed Effects ◽

Confounding Variables ◽

Condition Score ◽

The Impact ◽

The Relationship

Abstract This research communication describes the relationship between the occurrence of lameness and body condition score (BCS) in a sample of 288 cows from a single farm that were repeatedly scored in the course of 9 months while controlling for confounding variables. The relationship between BCS and lameness was evaluated using generalised linear mixed-effects models. It was found that the proportion of lame cows was higher with decreasing but also with increasing BCS, increased with lactation number and decreased with time since the last claw trimming. This is likely to reflect the importance of sufficient body condition in the prevention of lameness but also raises the question of the impact of overcondition on lameness and the influence of claw trimming events on the assessment of lameness. A stronger focus on BCS might allow improved management of lameness that is still one of the major problems in housed cows.

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Biomechanical Analysis of Weighted-Ball Exercises for Baseball Pitchers

Sports Health A Multidisciplinary Approach ◽

10.1177/1941738116679816 ◽

2016 ◽

Vol 9 (3) ◽

pp. 210-215 ◽

Cited By ~ 19

Author(s):

Glenn S. Fleisig ◽

Alek Z. Diffendaffer ◽

Kyle T. Aune ◽

Brett Ivey ◽

Walter A. Laughlin

Keyword(s):

Repeated Measures ◽

Rotation Velocity ◽

Elbow Flexion ◽

Biomechanical Analysis ◽

Joint Kinetics ◽

Ball Velocity ◽

Baseball Pitchers ◽

Kinematics And Kinetics ◽

Flat Ground ◽

Ball Mass

Background: Weighted-ball throwing programs are commonly used in training baseball pitchers to increase ball velocity. The purpose of this study was to compare kinematics and kinetics among weighted-ball exercises with values from standard pitching (ie, pitching standard 5-oz baseballs from a mound). Hypothesis: Ball and arm velocities would be greater with lighter balls and joint kinetics would be greater with heavier balls. Study Design: Controlled laboratory study. Methods: Twenty-five high school and collegiate baseball pitchers experienced with weighted-ball throwing were tested with an automated motion capture system. Each participant performed 3 trials of 10 different exercises: pitching 4-, 5-, 6-, and 7-oz baseballs from a mound; flat-ground crow hop throws with 4-, 5-, 6-, and 7-oz baseballs; and flat-ground hold exercises with 14- and 32-oz balls. Twenty-six biomechanical parameters were computed for each trial. Data among the 10 exercises were compared with repeated measures analysis of variance and post hoc paired t tests against the standard pitching data. Results: Ball velocity increased as ball mass decreased. There were no differences in arm and trunk velocities between throwing a standard baseball and an underweight baseball (4 oz), while arm and trunk velocities steadily decreased as ball weight increased from 5 to 32 oz. Compared with values pitching from a mound, velocities of the pelvis, shoulder, and ball were increased for flat-ground throws. In general, as ball mass increased arm torques and forces decreased; the exception was elbow flexion torque, which was significantly greater for the flat-ground holds. There were significant differences in body positions when pitching on the mound, flat-ground throws, and holds. Conclusions: While ball velocity was greatest throwing underweight baseballs, results from the study did not support the rest of the hypothesis. Kinematics and kinetics were similar between underweight and standard baseballs, while overweight balls correlated with decreased arm forces, torques, and velocities. Increased ball velocity and joint velocities were produced with crow hop throws, likely because of running forward while throwing. Clinical Relevance: As pitching slightly underweight and overweight baseballs produces variations in kinematics without increased arm kinetics, these exercises seem reasonable for training pitchers. As flat-ground throwing produces increased shoulder internal rotation velocity and elbow varus torque, these exercises may be beneficial but may also be stressful and risky. Flat-ground holds with heavy balls should not be viewed as enhancing pitching biomechanics, but rather as hybrid exercises between throwing and resistance training.

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Association of Pitch Timing and Throwing Arm Kinetics in High School and Professional Pitchers

The American Journal of Sports Medicine ◽

10.1177/03635465211031853 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 49 (12) ◽

pp. 3386-3394

Author(s):

Joseph E. Manzi ◽

Brittany Dowling ◽

Zhaorui Wang ◽

Kyle N. Kunze ◽

Jennifer Estrada ◽

...

Keyword(s):

High School ◽

Injury Prevention ◽

Significant Loss ◽

Mixed Effect ◽

Pitching Motion ◽

3 Dimensional ◽

Ball Velocity ◽

Angular Velocities ◽

Baseball Pitchers ◽

Distraction Force

Background: Understanding the relationship between the temporal phases of the baseball pitch and subsequent joint loading may improve our understanding of optimal pitching mechanics and contribute to injury prevention in baseball pitchers. Purpose: To investigate the temporal phases of the pitching motion and their associations with ball velocity and throwing arm kinetics in high school (HS) and professional (PRO) baseball pitchers. Study Design: Descriptive laboratory study. Methods: PRO (n = 317) and HS (n = 54) baseball pitchers were evaluated throwing 8 to 12 fastball pitches using 3-dimensional motion capture (480 Hz). Four distinct phases of the pitching motion were evaluated based on timing of angular velocities: (1) Foot-Pelvis, (2) Pelvis-Torso, (3) Torso-Elbow, and (4) Elbow-Ball. Peak elbow varus torque, shoulder internal rotation torque, and shoulder distraction force were also calculated and compared between playing levels using 2-sample t tests. Linear mixed-effect models with compound symmetry covariance structures were used to correlate pitch velocity and throwing arm kinetics with the distinct temporal phases of the pitching motion. Results: PRO pitchers had greater weight and height, and faster ball velocities than HS pitchers ( P < .001). There was no difference in total pitch time between groups ( P = .670). PRO pitchers spent less time in the Foot-Pelvis ( P = .010) and more time in the Pelvis-Torso ( P < .001) phase comparatively. Shorter time spent in the earlier phases of the pitching motion was significantly associated with greater ball velocity for both PRO and HS pitchers (Foot-Pelvis: B = −6.4 and B = −11.06, respectively; Pelvis-Torso: B = −6.4 and B = −11.4, respectively), while also associated with increased shoulder proximal force (Pelvis-Torso: B = −76.4 and B = −77.5, respectively). Decreased time in the Elbow-Ball phase correlated with greater shoulder proximal force for both cohorts (B = −1150 and B = −645, respectively) with no significant correlation found for ball velocity. Conclusion: Significant differences in temporal phases exist between PRO and HS pitchers. For all pitchers, increased time spent in the final phase of the pitching motion has the potential to decrease shoulder distraction force with no significant loss in ball velocity. Clinical Relevance: Identifying risk factors for increased shoulder and elbow kinetics, acting as a surrogate for loading at the respective joints, has potential implications in injury prevention.

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Physical Isolation and Mental Health Among Older U.S. Adults in the COVID-19 Coping Study

Innovation in Aging ◽

10.1093/geroni/igab046.145 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 5 (Supplement_1) ◽

pp. 39-39

Author(s):

Carly Joseph ◽

Brendan O'Shea ◽

Jessica Finlay ◽

Lindsay Kobayashi

Keyword(s):

Mental Health ◽

Older Adults ◽

Mixed Effects Models ◽

Middle Aged ◽

Linear Mixed Effects ◽

Us States ◽

Physical Isolation ◽

The Impact ◽

Do So

Abstract The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has set an urgent need to understand the impact of physical isolation on mental health. We aimed to investigate the relationships between physical isolation during the period when many US states had shelter-in-place orders (April-May 2020) and subsequent longitudinal trajectories of mental health in middle-aged and older adults (aged 55+, N=3,978) over a six-month follow-up (April to October 2020). We used population and attrition-weighted multivariable linear mixed-effects models. At baseline, 7 days/week of physical isolation (vs. 0 days/week) was associated with elevated depressive symptoms (β=0.82; 95% CI: 0.04-1.60), and all of 1-3, 4-6, and 7 days/week of physical isolation (vs. 0 days/week) were associated with elevated anxiety symptoms and loneliness. Physical isolation was not associated with changes in mental health symptoms over time. These findings highlight the need to prioritize opportunities for in-person connection for middle-aged and older adults when safe to do so.

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Arts in Science: ‘Painting’ Health Allied Senior High School Students’ Meaningful Learning Engagement

Utamax : Journal of Ultimate Research and Trends in Education ◽

10.31849/utamax.v3i2.6471 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 3 (2) ◽

pp. 58-67

Author(s):

Juland Salayo ◽

Buen Euleen V. Lainez ◽

Russel Dustin R. Dolendo ◽

Jamie Marie Reynielle D. Agonoy ◽

Rica Madeleine B. Bargo ◽

...

Keyword(s):

High School ◽

High School Students ◽

Vital Role ◽

Senior High School ◽

School Students ◽

Study Results ◽

Teachers And Students ◽

K 12 ◽

The Impact

The education system acknowledges the relevance and impact of arts in exploring students' different skills and competencies. However, most of the learners remain bias on the purpose and essence of art-based activities since most of the strands offered in senior high school are academically designed through the K-12 program, which guides and prepares incoming college students in choosing their career path. Hence, this study attempted to determine the vital role of arts-based instructional approaches to enrich students' learning in one selected catholic Senior High school in Manila, Philippines. Applying a qualitative approach through intensive interviews, 15 Health Allied students participated in this study. Results revealed that arts are highly integrated with the delivery of the different lessons of the involved strand. Moreover, arts proved that they have solid and influential roles in improving students' quality of learning. Furthermore, the impact and relevance of arts as an instructional approach supports the learning process of health allied students. Thus, this research informs and guides the teachers and students on the importance and impact of art as an overlooked field in education that maximizes one's potentials.

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The impact of distance and the crow hop on medial elbow stress during an interval throwing program

Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine ◽

10.1177/2325967120s00340 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 8 (7_suppl6) ◽

pp. 2325967120S0034

Author(s):

Austin Cross ◽

Grace Smith ◽

Caleb Gulledge ◽

Dylan Koolmees ◽

Vasilios Moutzouros ◽

...

Keyword(s):

High School ◽

Ligament Reconstruction ◽

Ulnar Collateral Ligament ◽

Collateral Ligament ◽

Baseball Players ◽

Standard Interval ◽

Rehabilitation Programs ◽

Ball Velocity ◽

The Impact ◽

Ulnar Collateral Ligament Reconstruction

Objectives: Rehabilitation programs following ulnar collateral ligament reconstruction include an interval throwing program in order to gradually increase stress and prevent excessive elbow valgus loads. These programs often instruct players to use the crow hop, even at short distances, in order to reduce stress on the reconstructed ligament. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the impact of the crow hop on medial elbow stress at various distances of an interval throwing program. Methods: High school and college-aged baseball players were recruited for this study. Players threw at distances of 30, 45, 60, 90, 120, 150, and 180 feet. At each distance, participants made 3 throws while using a crow hop and 3 throws without using a crow hop with the instruction to throw on an arc. A wearable device recorded elbow torque, arm slot, arm speed, and shoulder rotation. Ball velocity was measured using radar gun. Results: A total of 20 players participated in this study. Overall elbow torque at each distance was 12.9, 20.5, 26.3, 31.9, 34.7, 36.1, and 37.1 Nm, respectively. There was no difference in elbow stress for throws with a crow hop compared to throws without a crow hop at any distance of throwing (p > 0.05). There was no difference in elbow torque for throws at 150 feet compared to 120 feet (p = 0.10) or 150 feet compared to 180 feet (p = 0.83); however, there were significant increases in elbow torque between every other throwing distance (p < 0.05). Conclusions: Medial elbow torque significantly increases at greater throwing distances of a standard interval throwing program, although the effect becomes less pronounced at longer distances as players maximize effort. The crow hop does not affect medial elbow torque at any distance of throwing.

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Impact of Nonmodal Phonation on Estimates of Subglottal Pressure From Neck-Surface Acceleration in Healthy Speakers

Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research ◽

10.1044/2019_jslhr-s-19-0067 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 62 (9) ◽

pp. 3339-3358 ◽

Cited By ~ 6

Author(s):

Katherine L. Marks ◽

Jonathan Z. Lin ◽

Annie B. Fox ◽

Laura E. Toles ◽

Daryush D. Mehta

Keyword(s):

Linear Relationship ◽

Mixed Effects Models ◽

Linear Mixed Effects ◽

Linear Relationships ◽

Before And After ◽

Subglottal Pressure ◽

Intraoral Air Pressure ◽

Future Work ◽

The Impact ◽

Healthy Participants

Purpose The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of nonmodal phonation on estimates of subglottal pressure (Ps) derived from the magnitude of a neck-surface accelerometer (ACC) signal and to confirm previous findings regarding the impact of vowel contexts and pitch levels in a larger cohort of participants. Method Twenty-six vocally healthy participants (18 women, 8 men) were asked to produce a series of p-vowel syllables with descending loudness in 3 vowel contexts (/a/, /i/, and /u/), 3 pitch levels (comfortable, high, and low), and 4 elicited phonatory conditions (modal, breathy, strained, and rough). Estimates of Ps for each vowel segment were obtained by averaging the intraoral air pressure plateau before and after each segment. The root-mean-square magnitude of the neck-surface ACC signal was computed for each vowel segment. Three linear mixed-effects models were used to statistically assess the effects of vowel, pitch, and phonatory condition on the linear relationship (slope and intercept) between Ps and ACC signal magnitude. Results Results demonstrated statistically significant linear relationships between ACC signal magnitude and Ps within participants but with increased intercepts for the nonmodal phonatory conditions; slopes were affected to a lesser extent. Vowel and pitch contexts did not significantly affect the linear relationship between ACC signal magnitude and Ps. Conclusion The classic linear relationship between ACC signal magnitude and Ps is significantly affected when nonmodal phonation is produced by a speaker. Future work is warranted to further characterize nonmodal phonatory characteristics to improve the ACC-based prediction of Ps during naturalistic speech production.

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INVESTIGATING THE IMPACT OF PEER FFEDBACK AND TEACHER FEEDBACK USING GOOGLE DOCS ON EFL STUDENTS’ WRITING PERFORMANCE

European Journal of Education Studies ◽

10.46827/ejes.v8i10.3926 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 8 (10) ◽

Author(s):

Nguyen Thi Nien Hoa ◽

Trinh Quoc Lap

Keyword(s):

High School ◽

High School Students ◽

Peer Feedback ◽

Teacher Feedback ◽

Control Group ◽

Writing Performance ◽

Google Docs ◽

Study Results ◽

The Impact ◽

Experimental Group

Online written corrective feedback via Google Docs, in recent years, has been used and brought about positive outcomes in different teaching contexts. In this light, this study was conducted to examine the different effects between teacher feedback using Google Docs and the combined peer feedback and teacher feedback using Google Docs on EFL high school students’ performance in writing paragraphs. The study also attempted to gain insights into students’ attitudes towards the effect of peer feedback and teacher feedback using Google Docs on their paragraph writing. In this study, a mixed research method was employed; both quantitative and qualitative data were collected. Twenty two grade 11 students in a high school in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam were selected as participants. They were assigned to two groups of treatment: the experimental group, receiving both peer feedback and teacher feedback using Google Docs and the control group who only received teacher feedback using Google Docs. Participants completed two writing tasks; each of them included first draft, second draft and final draft. Prior to the study, students from the experimental group received a face-to-face training on giving peer feedback. Data were collected from six drafts of two writing tasks, three drafts for one task, and interviews at the end of the study. Results indicated that participants who received teacher feedback in the control group performed their paragraph writing better than those receiving both peer feedback and teacher feedback using Google Docs in the experimental group after the study. Also, participants in both groups improved their writing performance in their revised drafts. From the interviews, results showed participants’ positive attitudes towards the impact of peer feedback and teacher feedback using Google Docs on their paragraph writing. Article visualizations:<img src="/-counters-/edu_01/0893/a.php" alt="Hit counter" />

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Predictors of Elbow Torque Among Youth and Adolescent Baseball Pitchers

The American Journal of Sports Medicine ◽

10.1177/0363546518770619 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 46 (9) ◽

pp. 2148-2153 ◽

Cited By ~ 22

Author(s):

Kelechi R. Okoroha ◽

Vincent A. Lizzio ◽

Fabien Meta ◽

Christopher S. Ahmad ◽

Vasilios Moutzouros ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Body Mass Index ◽

Body Mass ◽

Ulnar Collateral Ligament ◽

Multivariable Model ◽

Minute Period ◽

Youth Baseball ◽

Elbow Injuries ◽

Ball Velocity ◽

Baseball Pitchers

Background: There has been an increasing incidence of overuse elbow injuries among youth and adolescent pitchers. Pitch type has been implicated as a risk factor for excess torque at the medial elbow; however, this has not been definitively demonstrated. Purpose: To assess predictors of torque across the medial elbow in youth and adolescent pitchers with a mobile sensor. In addition, the authors aimed to determine the differences in elbow torque produced according to pitch type (fastball, curveball, changeup) and pitcher demographics. Study Design: Descriptive laboratory study. Methods: Twenty youth and adolescent pitchers were instructed to throw 8 fastballs, 8 curveballs, and 8 changeups in a standardized but randomized sequence over a 25-minute period. Five pitchers were evaluated each day. A sensor placed at the medial elbow reported elbow torque, arm speed, arm slot, and shoulder rotation for each pitch, while a radar gun measured peak ball velocity. The primary outcome was a determination of thrower and pitch characteristics associated with elevated torque across the medial elbow. Secondary outcomes included the evaluation of differences in throwing biomechanics among different pitch types. Outcomes were assessed via a multivariable model, which controlled for possible covariates. Results: In total, 20 youth baseball pitchers with a mean age of 14.1 years (range, 12-17 years) were included in the study. On average, fastballs caused the greatest torque across the medial elbow (least squares mean ± SE, 47.3 ± 0.5 N·m) as compared with changeups (44.2 ± 0.5 N·m; P < .001) and curveballs (45.0 ± 0.5 N·m; P = .002). However, curveballs produced the greatest arm speed (917.8 rpm). Pitchers who started throwing curveballs at an older age experienced less elbow torque ( P < .001). A multivariable model demonstrated that increased ball velocity and body mass index and decreased arm slot were independent predictors of increased elbow torque. Conversely, increasing age, longer arm length, and greater elbow circumference were independent protectors against elbow torque. Conclusion: This study found that among youth and adolescent pitchers, fastballs generate the highest elbow torque while curveballs generated the greatest arm speed. Increased ball velocity and body mass index and decreased arm slot were predictors of elbow torque; however, increasing age and size of a pitcher’s arm were protectors against elbow torque. These findings are important to better understand risk factors for overuse injury in this at-risk athletic population. Clinical Relevance: These findings may inform future pitching recommendations with intentions of curtailing medial elbow injuries experienced by young pitchers, such as ulnar collateral ligament injuries.

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