The Environment of Death and its Influence on Police Officers in the United States

2001 ◽  
Vol 43 (2) ◽  
pp. 145-155 ◽  
Author(s):  
John D. Sugimoto ◽  
Kevin Ann Oltjenbruns
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Law Enforcement ◽  
Police Officers ◽  
Stress Disorder ◽  
Law Enforcement Officers ◽  
The United States ◽  
Self Control ◽  
Traumatic Grief ◽  
American Law ◽  
Grief Reactions

Exposure to the threat of death or to death events is acknowledged to be a factor in the manifestation of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Police officers in the United States are immersed in a professional and cultural environment replete with death. Given for consideration is the notion that inescapable, death-related stressors of wide variety and intensity, some of which are constructs of the police profession, contribute to the manifestation and maintenance of PTSD as well as traumatic grief reactions in American law enforcement officers. Personnel who continue police work while symptomatic may incur risks of reduced self-control, escalated use of force, and other inappropriate behavior due to irritability or outbursts of anger associated with PTSD. Because of the primacy of the element of death, those who are involved in the field of thanatology may hold the key to discovering and effecting palliative measures on behalf of this population.

Hidden danger

2020 ◽  
Vol 43 (2) ◽  
pp. 330-344
Author(s):  
John M. Violanti ◽  
Desta Fekedulegn ◽  
Mingming Shi ◽  
Michael E. Andrew
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Law Enforcement ◽  
Police Officers ◽  
Law Enforcement Officers ◽  
Wellness Programs ◽  
The United States ◽  
Health Issues ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Health Related ◽  
Rate Frequency

PurposeLaw enforcement is a dangerous profession not only due to assaults, accidents and homicides but also due to health risks. This study examined trends in the national frequency and rate of law enforcement job-related illness deaths in the United States over a 22-year period (1997–2018).Design/methodology/approachData were obtained from the National Law Enforcement Officers Memorial Fund (NLEOMF) on death frequencies related to health issues at work. Death rates were based on the total number of police officers in the United States [rate = (frequency/population at risk) × 100,000]. Trends were examined using standardized regression.FindingsA total of 646 deaths were attributed to job-related illness. There was a significant upward trend in overall job-related illness deaths (frequency analyses: β = 0.88, p < 0.0001; rate analyses: β = 0.82, p ≤ 0.0001) mainly driven by a significant increase in 911 cancer deaths (frequency analyses: β = 0.88, p < 0.0001; rate analyses: β = 0.88, p ≤ 0.0001). Nearly 82 percent of circulatory deaths were from a heart attack, with an average death age of 46.5 years.Research limitations/implicationsDeaths were not included if they failed to meet medical requirements of the NLEOMF. The data are descriptive, do not estimate risk and should be interpreted cautiously.Practical implicationsPolice wellness programs may help to reduce the danger of deaths associated with job-related illness.Originality/valueThis is among the first studies to examine frequency and rate of police health–related deaths due to job exposures.

Politics, Safety, and Officer-Involved Intimate Partner Violence

2019 ◽  
pp. 227-245
Author(s):  
Leigh Goodmark
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Intimate Partner Violence ◽  
Law Enforcement ◽  
Police Officers ◽  
Partner Violence ◽  
The United States ◽  
Intimate Partner ◽  
Three Dimensions ◽  
Political Decision ◽  
Political Decisions

The United States relies heavily on law enforcement to protect people subjected to intimate partner violence. The decision to prioritize law enforcement intervention may seem natural, but it is, in fact a political decision, with consequences along three dimensions. First, prioritizing the law enforcement response has precluded the development of other policies to address intimate partner violence. Second, channeling money into law enforcement helped to facilitate the growth of a hypermasculine, militarized environment where violence against women flourishes. Third, the decision to rely on law enforcement ignores research establishing that police officers are more likely than other groups to commit intimate partner violence. These political decisions have profound consequences for all people subjected to abuse, particularly the partners of police officers.

Extending Research on the “War on Cops”: The Effects of Ferguson on Nonfatal Assaults Against U.S. Police Officers

2019 ◽  
Vol 67 (1) ◽  
pp. 3-26 ◽  
Author(s):  
John A. Shjarback ◽  
Edward R. Maguire
Keyword(s):  
Law Enforcement ◽  
Police Officers ◽  
Law Enforcement Officers ◽  
Federal Bureau ◽  
Monthly Data ◽  
National Debate ◽  
American Law ◽  
Time Series Analyses ◽  
Perceptions Of Safety ◽  
The Impact

This study tests whether violence directed toward American law enforcement has increased in the wake of events in Ferguson, Missouri, in summer 2014. Using monthly data from the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s (FBI) Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted (LEOKA) reports (2010–2016), we carried out time-series analyses to examine trends in nonfatal assaults on police officers in a sample of 4,921 agencies. Neither injurious nor noninjurious assaults on officers increased following Michael Brown’s death in August 2014. The findings are robust across a variety of model specifications and estimation techniques, providing little evidence of a “War on Cops” through 2016. The study adds empirical rigor to an ongoing national debate based largely on speculation/anecdotes. The impact and potential consequences of the current climate for officers’ perceptions of safety/risk are discussed.

Police officers, stigma, and the opioid epidemic

2020 ◽  
Vol 22 (4) ◽  
pp. 393-406 ◽  
Author(s):  
Nathan E Kruis ◽  
Jaeyong Choi ◽  
Richard H Donohue
Keyword(s):  
Law Enforcement ◽  
Police Officers ◽  
Social Distance ◽  
Disease Model ◽  
Law Enforcement Officers ◽  
The United States ◽  
Policy Implications ◽  
Opioid Epidemic ◽  
Front Line ◽  
Multivariable Analyses

Researchers have suggested that provider-based stigma of substance use disorders is one barrier to fighting the opioid epidemic. Yet, to date, virtually no study has examined provider-based stigma among law enforcement officers who are on the front line of the opioid crisis. This study attempts to fill this gap in the literature by assessing provider-based stigma toward opioid-using persons among a sample of 208 police officers working for departments located in the Northeastern Region of the United States. Results show that officers hold relatively high levels of stigma toward this vulnerable population, as measured by perceptions of dangerousness, blame, and social distance; however, comparatively, officers hold less fatalistic views toward this group of persons. Additionally, our multivariable analyses indicated that officer rank, support for the disease model of addiction, and beliefs about the demographic characteristics of a substance-using person are significantly associated with provider-based stigma among officers. Potential policy implications are discussed within.

scholarly journals Firearm Prevalence and Homicides of Law Enforcement Officers in the United States

2015 ◽  
Vol 105 (10) ◽  
pp. 2042-2048 ◽  
Author(s):  
David I. Swedler ◽  
Molly M. Simmons ◽  
Francesca Dominici ◽  
David Hemenway
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Law Enforcement ◽  
Law Enforcement Officers ◽  
The United States

Stop-and-Frisk Policing

Criminology ◽  
2021 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
New York ◽  
Law Enforcement ◽  
Criminal Activity ◽  
Law Enforcement Officers ◽  
The United States ◽  
Class Action ◽  
Deterrent Effect ◽  
Stop And Frisk ◽  
Reasonable Suspicion

Stop and frisk is a proactive policing strategy that is widely used by police departments across the globe. In the United States, the origins of stop and frisk are rooted in the English practice of allowing night watchmen to stop and question individuals who were deemed suspicious. This ability to stop and question suspicious individuals serves two primary purposes. First, it gives law enforcement officers the ability to identify individuals who are looking to engage in criminal activity, stop those individuals, and prevent them from committing a criminal offense. Second, it may have a deterrent effect if potential offenders refrain from criminal offending because they do not want to risk being stopped. By the early 20th century, the implementation of stop and frisk in the United States varied by state. The Uniform Arrest Act, proposed in 1942, sought to standardize the practice. While several states adopted the Uniform Crime Act, which stipulated the circumstances under which a stop and frisk could occur, most states failed to do so. The practice of stop and frisk also faced constitutional challenges, with plaintiffs alleging violations of the Fourth Amendment’s prohibitions against unreasonable searches and seizures. In 1968, the US Supreme Court affirmed the constitutionality of stop and frisk. When law enforcement officers can establish reasonable suspicion, they can stop and question an individual. If there is reasonable suspicion to believe that a stopped individual possesses a weapon or poses a threat, law enforcement officers can also conduct a frisk. Stop and frisk has faced significant criticism and has been the subject of several class-action lawsuits, particularly in New York City. First, there is significant concern that nonwhite pedestrians are more likely than white pedestrians to be stopped, frisked, and subjected to the use of force. Next, stop and frisk may reduce perceptions of legitimacy and trust in law enforcement. The practice may also have adverse health consequences for those who are subjected to it or are in fear of being subjected to it. Finally, it is unclear whether stop and frisk prevents crime. It is also important to note that stop and frisk faces these same criticisms in other nations. The literature cited in this article summarizes key pieces on stop and frisk.

scholarly journals Far-Right Extremism’s Threat to Police Safety and the Organizational Legitimacy of Law Enforcement in the United States

2021 ◽  
Vol 15 (4) ◽  
pp. 822-850
Author(s):  
W. S. Parkin ◽  
C. E. Mills ◽  
J. Gruenewald
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Law Enforcement ◽  
Law Enforcement Officers ◽  
The United States ◽  
Practical Significance ◽  
Western Society ◽  
Law Enforcement Agencies ◽  
Far Right ◽  
Government Ideology ◽  
External Threat

Цель: to analyze the far-right extremism’s anti- government ideology as an external threat to law enforcement officers. Methods: dialectical approach to cognition of social phenomena, using the general and specific research methods based on it. Results: The relationship between far-right extremism and law enforcement in the United States has a long and complicated history. In 2020, this relationship was on display as both far-right extremists and law enforcement agencies were brought into the national spotlight for their roles in multiple unprecedented events. This research discusses how far-right extremism’s anti- government ideology represents an external threat to law enforcement officers. This threat is discussed through the presentation of 30-years of data on law enforcement officers killed in the line-of-duty by far-right extremists from the Extremist Crime Database. In addition, the research also examines law enforcement’s implicit and explicit support for far-right extremism, which creates an internal threat against the legitimacy of the profession. Finally, policy initiatives that come from, and build upon, prior research are discussed to reduce these threats.Scientific novelty: for the first time, the work substantiates that far-right extremists threaten the safety of law enforcement officers in the United States. Antigovernment extremists, who do not believe that they are subject to the laws of the jurisdiction where they live, pose the risk of escalating to violent acts when encountering law enforcement when they engage in both ideologically motivated and routine criminal activity. In addition, law enforcement agencies who hire far-right extremists face the very real prospect of becoming illegitimate in the eyes of the communities to whom they are sworn to serve and protect. Decades of criminological research has shown that lack of trust in law enforcement makes the job of policing a community more difficult and more dangerous. Although multiple paths forward were outlined that build on prior research and empirical knowledge, only decisive action by law enforcement and policymakers will result in outcomes that reduce the risk of external violent victimization to police and protect law enforcement agencies from being delegitimized by the presence of far-right extremists within their ranks.Practical significance: the main provisions and conclusions of the article can be used in scientific, pedagogical and law enforcement activities when considering issues related to the prevention, suppression and investigation of extremist crimes.The article was first published in English language by Criminology, Criminal Justice, Law & Society and The Western Society of Criminology Hosting by Scholastica. For more information please contact: [email protected] original publication: Parkin, W. S., Mills, C. E., Gruenewald, J. (2021). Far-Right Extremism’s Threat to Police Safety and the Organizational Legitimacy of Law Enforcement in the United States, Criminology, Criminal Justice, Law & Society, 2021, Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 1–24. Publication URL: https://ccjls.scholasticahq.com/article/26321-far-right-extremism-s-threat-to-police-safety-and-the-organizational-legitimacy-of-law-enforcement-in-the-united-states

Protecting others, compassion, and sacrifice: The toll of disaster policing on law enforcement officers in the United States

2021 ◽  
pp. 0032258X2110447
Author(s):  
Liz Davenport Pollock ◽  
Daniel Augusto
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Law Enforcement ◽  
Role Conflict ◽  
Adaptive Response ◽  
Law Enforcement Officers ◽  
The United States ◽  
Theory Approach ◽  
Family Role ◽  
Work Family ◽  
Grounded Theory Approach

This study used a qualitative grounded theory approach to explore disaster experiences of law enforcement officers (LEO)s ( n = 56), in two high disaster areas of the United States. Respondents indicated that disasters cause increased stress on LEOs from fatigue, extended shifts, changing duties, increased workload, work–family role conflict, and new operational expectations and challenges within the agency during disasters. Family safety was also identified as a critical stressor and pre-occupation for LEOs during disaster policing, as well as an enhanced reliance on critical thinking as an adaptive response to untrained for challenges that are unique to disasters.

Current Issues in Psychological Fitness-for-Duty Evaluations of Law Enforcement Officers

2017 ◽  
pp. 93-117
Author(s):  
Martin J. Mayer ◽  
David M. Corey
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Law Enforcement ◽  
Law Enforcement Officers ◽  
The United States ◽  
Employment Law ◽  
Professional Standards ◽  
Police Psychology ◽  
Fitness For Duty ◽  
Standards Of Practice ◽  
Key Topics

Courts throughout the United States have ruled that that the “awesome powers” entrusted to law enforcement officers, and the safety-sensitive nature of their positions, impose on their public employers a responsibility to ensure that they are fit to perform their duties. But, as with an officer's powers, the authority of a police employer to mandate a psychological fitness-for-duty evaluation (FFDE) is not without boundaries. This chapter addresses the legal authority of a police employer to require an FFDE, the limits to that authority, and the implications of these constraints both for police employers and the psychologists who conduct these evaluations on their behalf. Written by two prominent experts in police employment law and police psychology, this chapter concerns itself with both the law and professional standards of practice. Key topics include the legal threshold for requiring an FFDE, limitations to the content of an FFDE report, and evaluator qualifications.

Deadly Force

Criminology ◽  
2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Philip M. Stinson
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Law Enforcement ◽  
Police Officers ◽  
Use Of Force ◽  
The United States ◽  
Deadly Force ◽  
Bodily Injury ◽  
Police Accountability ◽  
Imminent Threat ◽  
Meaningful Data

Deadly force refers to any use of force by a police officer that could result in the imposition of serious bodily injury or death. It includes homicides by police. Most homicides by police in the United States are found to be legally justified. A sworn law enforcement officer with general powers of arrest is legally justified in using deadly force if the officer has a reasonable apprehension of an imminent threat of serious bodily injury or death being imposed against the officer or someone else. The fleeing felon rule has been abrogated and police officers are no longer legally justified in using deadly force to stop a fleeing felon absent other exigencies that would constitute an imminent threat. Deadly force research has long been hampered by the lack of meaningful data on the incidence and prevalence of police use of deadly force. Government counts of fatal officer-involved shootings have grossly underestimated annual counts of deadly force incidents. Recent open-source databases, largely created and curated by media organizations, have found that between 900 and 1,000 persons are shot and killed by on-duty police officers each year in the United States. This bibliography mostly focuses on deadly force in the United States. There has been a renewed interest in deadly force research in the aftermath of numerous officer-involved shooting in recent years, with calls for police accountability, transparency, and legitimacy, particularly as various stakeholders have called attention to racial disparities in terms of who is victimized by police deadly force and claims of police bias manifested through police violence against minority citizens.

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