Blockchain Technology Based on Algorand Applied to Low-Power and Low-Cost IoT Devices

AbstractThis paper studies known indexing structures from a new point of view: minimisation of data exchange between an IoT device acting as a blockchain client and the blockchain server running a protocol suite that includes two Guy Fawkes protocols, PLS and SLVP. The PLS blockchain is not a cryptocurrency instrument; it is an immutable ledger offering guaranteed non-repudiation to low-power clients without use of public key crypto. The novelty of the situation is in the fact that every PLS client has to obtain a proof of absence in all blocks of the chain to which its counterparty does not contribute, and we show that it is possible without traversing the block’s Merkle tree. We obtain weight statistics of a leaf path on a sparse Merkle tree theoretically, as our ground case. Using the theory we quantify the communication cost of a client interacting with the blockchain. We show that large savings can be achieved by providing a bitmap index of the tree compressed using Tunstall’s method. We further show that even in the case of correlated access, as in two IoT devices posting messages for each other in consecutive blocks, it is possible to prevent compression degradation by re-randomising the IDs using a pseudorandom bijective function. We propose a low-cost function of this kind and evaluate its quality by simulation, using the avalanche criterion.

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Routing Protocols for Mobile Internet of Things (IoT): A Survey on Challenges and Solutions

Electronics ◽

10.3390/electronics10192320 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 10 (19) ◽

pp. 2320

Author(s):

Zawar Shah ◽

Andrew Levula ◽

Khawar Khurshid ◽

Jawad Ahmed ◽

Imdad Ullah ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Internet Of Things ◽

Low Power ◽

Routing Protocols ◽

Low Cost ◽

Mobile Internet ◽

Future Research ◽

The Internet ◽

Lossy Networks ◽

Energy Aware ◽

Iot Devices

The Internet of Things (IoT) is aimed to provide efficient and seamless connectivity to a large number of low-power and low-cost embedded devices, consequently, the routing protocols play a fundamental role in achieving these goals. The IETF has recently standardized the IPv6 Routing Protocol for Low Power and Lossy Networks (RPL) for LLNs (i.e., Low-power and Lossy Networks) and is well-accepted among the Internet community. However, RPL was proposed for static IoT devices and suffers from many issues when IoT devices are mobile. In this paper, we first present various issues that are faced by the RPL when IoT devices are mobile. We then carry out a detailed survey of various solutions that are proposed in the current literature to mitigate the issues faced by RPL. We classify various solutions into five categories i.e., ‘Trickle-timer based solutions’, ‘ETX based solutions’, ‘RSSI based solutions’, ‘Position-based solutions’, and ‘Miscellaneous solutions’. For each category of these solutions, we illustrate their working principles, issues addressed and make a thorough assessment of their strengths and weaknesses. In addition, we found several flaws in the performance analysis done by the authors of each of the solutions, e.g., nodes mobility, time intervals, etc., and suggest further investigations for the performance evaluations of these solutions in order to assess their applicability in real-world environments. Moreover, we provide future research directions for RPL supporting various real-time applications, mobility support, energy-aware, and privacy-aware routing.

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Bringing Security to The Smallest Embedded Systems

10.34048/2017.1.f5 ◽

2017 ◽

Author(s):

JOSEPH YIU

Keyword(s):

Internet Of Things ◽

Embedded Systems ◽

Low Cost ◽

Security Requirements ◽

The Internet ◽

Security Measures ◽

Significant Challenge ◽

Iot Devices

The increasing need for security in microcontrollers Security has long been a significant challenge in microcontroller applications(MCUs). Traditionally, many microcontroller systems did not have strong security measures against remote attacks as most of them are not connected to the Internet, and many microcontrollers are deemed to be cheap and simple. With the growth of IoT (Internet of Things), security in low cost microcontrollers moved toward the spotlight and the security requirements of these IoT devices are now just as critical as high-end systems due to:

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A Mechanism to Secure the Transaction of IoT Devices Using Blockchain Technology

SSRN Electronic Journal ◽

10.2139/ssrn.3734799 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Mahesh Arse ◽

Jigyasu Dubey

Keyword(s):

Blockchain Technology ◽

Iot Devices

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Virtualizing AI at the Distributed Edge Towards Intelligent IoT Applications

Journal of Sensor and Actuator Networks ◽

10.3390/jsan10010013 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 10 (1) ◽

pp. 13

Author(s):

Claudia Campolo ◽

Giacomo Genovese ◽

Antonio Iera ◽

Antonella Molinaro

Keyword(s):

Resource Constraints ◽

Smart Cities ◽

Traditional Approach ◽

Low Cost ◽

Iot Applications ◽

Software And Hardware ◽

Iot Devices ◽

Consumer Devices ◽

Hardware Platforms ◽

Smart Factories

Several Internet of Things (IoT) applications are booming which rely on advanced artificial intelligence (AI) and, in particular, machine learning (ML) algorithms to assist the users and make decisions on their behalf in a large variety of contexts, such as smart homes, smart cities, smart factories. Although the traditional approach is to deploy such compute-intensive algorithms into the centralized cloud, the recent proliferation of low-cost, AI-powered microcontrollers and consumer devices paves the way for having the intelligence pervasively spread along the cloud-to-things continuum. The take off of such a promising vision may be hurdled by the resource constraints of IoT devices and by the heterogeneity of (mostly proprietary) AI-embedded software and hardware platforms. In this paper, we propose a solution for the AI distributed deployment at the deep edge, which lays its foundation in the IoT virtualization concept. We design a virtualization layer hosted at the network edge that is in charge of the semantic description of AI-embedded IoT devices, and, hence, it can expose as well as augment their cognitive capabilities in order to feed intelligent IoT applications. The proposal has been mainly devised with the twofold aim of (i) relieving the pressure on constrained devices that are solicited by multiple parties interested in accessing their generated data and inference, and (ii) and targeting interoperability among AI-powered platforms. A Proof-of-Concept (PoC) is provided to showcase the viability and advantages of the proposed solution.

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SoC approach for low cost and low power consumption based on ARM Cortex M3 according to ISO 26262

2021 18th International Multi-Conference on Systems, Signals & Devices (SSD) ◽

10.1109/ssd52085.2021.9429395 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Muhammad Ikram Hafiz ◽

Mohamed Abdelawwad ◽

Waldemar Muller ◽

Eike Hahn ◽

Josef Borcsok

Keyword(s):

Power Consumption ◽

Low Power ◽

Low Cost ◽

Low Power Consumption ◽

Iso 26262

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Rural Healthcare IoT Architecture Based on Low-Energy LoRa

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health ◽

10.3390/ijerph18147660 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 18 (14) ◽

pp. 7660

Author(s):

Ace Dimitrievski ◽

Sonja Filiposka ◽

Francisco José Melero ◽

Eftim Zdravevski ◽

Petre Lameski ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Low Power ◽

Rural Areas ◽

Urban Areas ◽

Well Being ◽

Battery Life ◽

Ultra Low Power ◽

Term Operation ◽

Doctor Patient Communication ◽

Connected Health ◽

Iot Devices

Connected health is expected to introduce an improvement in providing healthcare and doctor-patient communication while at the same time reducing cost. Connected health would introduce an even more significant gap between healthcare quality for urban areas with physical proximity and better communication to providers and the portion of rural areas with numerous connectivity issues. We identify these challenges using user scenarios and propose LoRa based architecture for addressing these challenges. We focus on the energy management of battery-powered, affordable IoT devices for long-term operation, providing important information about the care receivers’ well-being. Using an external ultra-low-power timer, we extended the battery life in the order of tens of times, compared to relying on low power modes of the microcontroller.

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Multi-Blockchain-Based IoT Data Processing Techniques to Ensure the Integrity of IoT Data in AIoT Edge Computing Environments

Sensors ◽

10.3390/s21103515 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 21 (10) ◽

pp. 3515

Author(s):

Sung-Ho Sim ◽

Yoon-Su Jeong

Keyword(s):

Low Cost ◽

Third Party ◽

Monitoring And Control ◽

Constant Size ◽

Computing Environments ◽

Iot Devices ◽

Cloud Servers ◽

The Cost ◽

Processing Techniques ◽

And Control

As the development of IoT technologies has progressed rapidly recently, most IoT data are focused on monitoring and control to process IoT data, but the cost of collecting and linking various IoT data increases, requiring the ability to proactively integrate and analyze collected IoT data so that cloud servers (data centers) can process smartly. In this paper, we propose a blockchain-based IoT big data integrity verification technique to ensure the safety of the Third Party Auditor (TPA), which has a role in auditing the integrity of AIoT data. The proposed technique aims to minimize IoT information loss by multiple blockchain groupings of information and signature keys from IoT devices. The proposed technique allows IoT information to be effectively guaranteed the integrity of AIoT data by linking hash values designated as arbitrary, constant-size blocks with previous blocks in hierarchical chains. The proposed technique performs synchronization using location information between the central server and IoT devices to manage the cost of the integrity of IoT information at low cost. In order to easily control a large number of locations of IoT devices, we perform cross-distributed and blockchain linkage processing under constant rules to improve the load and throughput generated by IoT devices.

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