scholarly journals Unbound: Ethics, Law, Sustainability, and the New Space Race

Studia Humana ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 10 (4) ◽  
pp. 1-17
Author(s):  
Chris Impey

Abstract We are witnessing a new space race. A half century after the last Moon landing, and after a decade during which the United States could not launch its own astronauts to Earth orbit, there is new energy in the space activity. China has huge ambitions to rival or eclipse America as the major space power, and other countries are developing space programs. However, perhaps the greatest excitement attaches to the entrepreneurs who are trying to create a new business model for space travel based initially on tourism, and eventually, on colonizing the Moon and Mars and harvesting resources from asteroids. This paper presents a snapshot of the new space race and the rich men behind it, and it looks at some of the ethical and legal issues raised by this activity. The methodology is to consider the stated ambitions of the men leading private space companies, compare and contrast the space endeavor with earlier episodes of exploration and transportation innovation, review the regulatory environment for outer space, and consider two divergent scenarios for the future. Opinions are divided on whether commercial space flight is an expensive indulgence or potentially a way to find sustainability solutions for our life on Earth. It is concluded that the new space race can be characterized as unbounded: in ambition, in terms of laws and regulations, and in terms of ethical constraints on the activity.

Author(s):  
Chris Nie

A new era of spaceflight dawned following the conclusion of the United States and Russian space race. This new era has been marked by the design, assembly, and operation of one of the greatest engineering feats mankind has accomplished, the International Space Station (ISS). The ISS is comprised of hundreds of thousands of kilograms of material built on the ground and transported to space for assembly. It houses an artificial atmosphere to sustain life in outer space and has been continually inhabited for over 15 years. This chapter describes the technical complexity of the ISS, the background of how it was assembled, its major systems, details of crew life onboard, commercial usage of the resource, and examples of mishaps that have occurred during the ISS's operation. The technical details of the ISS provide a glimpse into what future space stations that might orbit the Moon and Mars will resemble.


Author(s):  
Saadia M Pekkanen

Abstract China and Japan are among the world’s top space powers, with significant technical competence in both conventional and ‘newspace’ capabilities. Since the early 1990s, each country has also taken a keen interest in shaping the governance of outer space activities. But they have done so in remarkably different ways, calling into question Asian states’ supposed preferences for soft and informal institutions. Japan has led the Asia-Pacific Regional Space Agency Forum, involving both state and nonstate participants, which is guided by a set of principles. China has opted for a high-profile formal intergovernmental design, the Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization, with a Convention and all the trappings of a formal organizational structure. This article assesses the activities of China and Japan in the new space race, discusses how and why the design of their space governance differs, and reflects on prospects for competition and cooperation.


1960 ◽  
Vol 12 (4) ◽  
pp. 564-584 ◽  
Author(s):  
Klaus Knorr

Though only a few years old, the Russian-American “space race” is in full swing and it is clear, even at this early stage of outer space technology, that it will present both countries with new opportunities and new dangers.From the American viewpoint we are especially interested in these related questions: First, how will outer space activities affect the external situation within which the United States seeks to promote its security and welfare? Second, how can the United States manipulate space developments in order to improve its security and welfare? And third, how should the United States concert its space policy with other elements of its foreign, defense, and domestic policies


2020 ◽  
Vol 13 (3) ◽  
pp. 75-98
Author(s):  
Jack B. Chaben

The Cold War initiated not only rapid weaponization campaigns within the United States and the Soviet Union, but launched a space race between the ideological opponents. The Soviet Union claimed an early victory by becoming the first nation to launch a satellite into space. Despite the United States' rough start, the country triumphed during its Apollo Program to become the leader in space. Treaties and international norms emerged throughout this time to prevent these technologically raging nations from weaponizing the expansive environment of outer space, but the resulting protections against national ownership of space limited incentives for future deep space travel. As the U.S. Space Shuttle program came to an end in 2011, the United States forfeit its capabilities to transport humans to the International Space Station. This apparent abandonment of outer space, however, began to reveal the seminal role of the commercial space industry and its revolutionary technologies. This article traces the transition from the Cold War-era space race to today’s robust public-private expansion into space. It highlights the foundational importance of international cooperation to protect the interests of private companies, and presents a model of cooperative succession between space agencies and companies to send humans to Mars.


Diálogos ◽  
2018 ◽  
Vol 22 (1) ◽  
pp. 76
Author(s):  
Leandro Siqueira

A chamada corrida espacial remete a um dos mais instigantes eventos da Guerra Fria e da própria história humana. Neste artigo, busca-se explicitar o contexto do pós-Segunda Guerra Mundial em que Estados Unidos e União Soviética decidiram investir em tecnologias para explorar e ocupar o espaço exterior, sobretudo a órbita terrestre, destacando suas estratégias ligadas à obtenção de informações sobre a ação do “inimigo” mediante a constituição de sistemas permanentes de inteligência a um baixo custo político para as tensas relações bipolares. Em meio a demonstrações de superioridade bélico-científica envolvendo o desenvolvimento de mísseis intercontinentais, satélites de pesquisa e os pioneiros voos espaciais tripulados, as superpotências se empenharam para instalar secretos sistemas orbitais de monitoramento dos arsenais nucleares, cuja entrada em operação passou a propiciar tecnologias eficazes para o governo do terror nuclear e para a administração diplomático-militar dos conflitos decorrentes de seu enfrentamento planetário. Além de recuperar informações sobre a Guerra Fria, a problematização da corrida espacial também contribui para o estudo genealógico dos programas sidero-planetários de monitoramento que se afirmam como elementos dos dispositivos de poder das contemporâneas sociedades de controle. Abstract Bring data! Space race and Intelligence The so-called space race refers to one of the most exciting events of the Cold War and of the human history. In this article, we try to explain the post-World War II context in which the United States and Soviet Union decided to invest in technologies to exploit and occupy outer space, especially the terrestrial orbit, highlighting their strategies for obtaining information about the action of the "enemy" through the constitution of permanent systems of intelligence at a low political cost for tense bipolar relations. Amidst demonstrations of warlike scientific superiority involving the development of intercontinental missiles, research satellites, and pioneering manned spaceflight, the superpowers worked to install secret orbital systems for monitoring nuclear arsenals, whose entry into operation began to provide effective technologies to the government of nuclear terror and to the diplomatic-military administration of the conflicts arising from its planetary confrontation. In addition to retrieving information about the Cold War, the problematization of the space race also contributes to the genealogical study of the space-planetary programs of monitoring that affirm themselves as elements of the devices of power of the contemporary societies of control. Resumen Bring data! Carrera espacial y inteligencia La carrera espacial lleva a uno de los más estimulantes eventos de la Guerra Fría y de la historia humana. En este artículo, vamos a explicitar el contexto de lo post Segunda Guerra Mundial en lo que Estados Unidos y Unión Soviética decidieron hacer uso de tecnologías para explorar y ocupar el espacio exterior, sobretodo la órbita terrestre, subrayando las estrategias relacionadas a la obtención de información sobre la acción del “enemigo” frente a la constitución de sistema permanentes de inteligencia de bajo coste político para las tensas relaciones bipolares. Entre las demonstraciones de superioridad bélica-científica involucrando el desarrollo de misiles intercontinentales, satélites de investigación y los pioneros vuelos espaciales tripulados, las superpotencias insistieron en instalar secretos sistemas orbitales para monitorear los arsenales nucleares, cuyo inicio de operación proporcionó tecnologías eficaces para el gobierno del terror nuclear y para la administración diplomático-militar de conflictos resultantes del enfrentamiento planetario. Además de recuperar informaciones sobre la Guerra Fría, la problematización de la carrera espacial también contribuye a que el estudio genealógico de programas siderales y planetarios para monitorizar que se afirman como elementos de dispositivos de poder de sociedades de control contemporáneas


2019 ◽  
Vol 10 (2) ◽  
Author(s):  
Samantha Kallen

One of the most enduring legacies of the Cold War period was the rivalry between the Soviet Union and the United States. This is especially true if one considers the ‘Space Race,’ of the mid 1950s-1960s, where each country tried to out-do the other in all manner of space technology. This paper, while acknowledging the importance held by military and scientific goals, argues that it was matters of nationalism and prestige that provided the biggest motivation for the creation of new space technologies during this time.


2021 ◽  
Vol 14 (3) ◽  
pp. 313-333
Author(s):  
Pavel G. Koshkin ◽  

The article deals with expert and media discourses around the second space race between Russia, the US and other countries. This is relevant today because America’s recent achievements in space exploration have intensified the discussion of another wave of competition among countries in Russian and Western media and think tanks. For example, the successful launches of the manned spacecraft Crew Dragon by Elon Musk to the International Space Station in 2020–2021 and the Perseverance rover’s landing on Mars in February 2021 put a spotlight on the new space race, with numerous media outlets and think tanks commenting on this topic. The novelty of the article lies in the fact that the author makes an attempt to analyze the problem of rivalry and cooperation in outer space through the lens of critical discourse analysis and survey, as well as through the perspective of international relations theory, particularly, through the conflict of realism and liberalism or idealism. The author comes to the conclusion that realists tend to aggravate the situation and define the current state of relations in space exploration as a new space race among global powers, while liberals use more accurate and restrained language such as “space rivalry” or “competition”. Realists are more skeptical toward cooperation in space exploration between competing powers like Russia and the US because of their political contradictions, while idealistic liberals pin their hopes on such a partnership.


Author(s):  
Svetlana Vladimirovna Kostyuchek ◽  
Stepan Vlasov ◽  
Andrei Alekseevich Vasin ◽  
Anna Andreevna Fokina

This article is explores the balance of powers in the strategic triangle United States – Russian Federation – People’s Republic of China in space. The key goal lies in assessment of the capacity of space industry in the listed countries. The relevance of the selected topic is substantiated by the strategic importance of the configuration of leadership in the new political space. Space race may bring to achieving technological superiority over the opponent by amplifying the influence in space using the latest and more powerful military and scientific developments. In the course of analysis, the author reveals the essential criteria for comparing the potential of the three countries. Through the prism of neo-realistic paradigm, interpretation is given to the quantitative indicators of the three powers. The article determines the leading countries in “space race”, and answers the question – which country has superiority to establish the rules of conduct in space. The “space race” actors have a sufficient level of power and are somewhat inferior in order to dictate the rules in outer space, or hinder the opponents in development of their space programs using political or economic leverage. China's aspiration to strengthen space capabilities for neutralizing any potential threats alongside commitment of China and Russia to challenge the dominance of the United States, paves the way for shifting the strategic competition between the US and China to space, which affects the military-strategic and technological spheres.


2021 ◽  
Vol 7 (2) ◽  
pp. 199-229
Author(s):  
Jose A. Martin del Campo

Current space law is unclear as to whether private entities may claim possession of resources extracted from their endeavors in outer space. The lack of certainty prevents private entities from entirely investing in infrastructure and capabilities to access new deposits of resources due to the depletion of minerals and resources on Earth. The establishment of a new space regime devoid of non-appropriation principles found in international law is necessary to motivate private entities to invest the capital in extracting and transporting space resources back to Earth. This Comment seeks to understand how the current framework of space law impacts the property rights of private entities and their claim to resources in space. The 1967 Outer Space Treaty prohibited the claiming of property by sovereign nations. However, the concept of private entities now having the capability to extract resources from outer space has reignited the issue of property rights in outer space. With resources becoming scarcer or priced out of the market, the solution of mining these resources from celestial bodies has caused a new space race. Past multilateral agreements have dealt with similar discoveries such as the polymetallic nodules on the ocean floor; however, these agreements led to disputes as to ownership and the rights to extract said resources. With little to no support from the industrialized nations, the structure of any new regime must ensure access for the benefit of humankind. The benefit of allowing these private entities the right to claim mined resources must be weighed against potential drawbacks in order to create a framework that balances the interest of the free market with that of the common heritage principle. In determining that a suitable framework fails to guide a new space regime, this Comment proposes that a new governing body comprising a rotation of space-faring and nonspacefaring nations act as a regulatory body for the interest of all of humankind.


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