scholarly journals Experimental tests for gender effects in a principal-agent game

2019 ◽  
Vol 2 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Andrew B Whitford ◽  
Holona L Ochs
Keyword(s):  
Laboratory Test ◽  
Experimental Tests ◽  
Gender Effects ◽  
Principal Agent ◽  
Wage Labor ◽  
Optimal Contract ◽  
Men And Women ◽  
Perceived Trust ◽  
Labor Agreement ◽  
Bargaining Position

Traditional arguments against women as leaders suggest that women would not be extended the trust necessary for leadership and/or that women undermine their own bargaining position by extending too much trust to others. We examine data from a laboratory test in which pairs of subjects are given the task of negotiating a wage-labor agreement.  We first derive the optimal contract offer for principals and response by agents. We find that men and women do not reach different bargaining outcomes. We also find that women in authority are perceived as more trustworthy than men with authority, and women are no more or less trusting than men of their superiors or subordinates. The perceived trust is not rooted in differential wage terms but is based on the negotiation setting. Thus, women are likely to be extended the trust necessary to lead and are not likely to produce outcomes that are significantly different from men.

Stock and Option Proportions in Executive Compensation

2011 ◽  
Vol 01 (01) ◽  
pp. 169-203 ◽  
Author(s):  
Phelim P. Boyle ◽  
Ranjini Jha ◽  
Shannon Kennedy ◽  
Weidong Tian
Keyword(s):  
Executive Compensation ◽  
Empirical Evidence ◽  
Risk Taking ◽  
Principal Agent ◽  
Optimal Contract ◽  
Efficient Mechanism ◽  
Opposite Conclusion

There is controversy about the relative merits of stock and options in executive compensation. Some observers contend that stock is a more efficient mechanism, while others reach the opposite conclusion. We focus on the manager's risk-taking incentives and derive an optimal compensation contract by using the concept of a comparable benchmark and imposing a volatility constraint in a principal-agent framework. We demonstrate a joint role for both stock and options in the optimal contract. We show that firms with higher volatility should use more options in compensating their executives and provide empirical evidence supporting this testable implication.

Gender effects on odor-induced taste enhancement and subsequent food consumption

2020 ◽  
Vol 37 (5) ◽  
pp. 511-519
Author(s):  
Yamen Koubaa ◽  
Amira Eleuch
Keyword(s):  
Food Consumption ◽  
Free Food ◽  
Gender Effects ◽  
Taste Perception ◽  
Personal Factors ◽  
Men And Women ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Gender Specific ◽  
Taste Enhancement ◽  
Detection And Recognition

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to test for gender-specific effects on odor-induced taste enhancement and subsequent food consumption in olfactory food marketing. Design/methodology/approach Lab experiments conducted among female and male participants using vanillin as a stimulus and ratings of sweetness, taste pleasantness and eating of sugar-free food as measures. Findings Odor-induced taste enhancement is gender-specific. Female consumers outperform male consumers in olfactory reaction and sweetness perception. While men outperform women in food consumption. Research limitations/implications Odor intensity was set to the concentration level of 0.00005per cent according to the findings from (Fujimaru and Lim, 2013). The authors believe that this intensity level is appropriate for both men and women. Still, there may be some gender effects on intensity levels, which are not explored here. The author’s test for the effects of one personal factor, gender and odor-induced taste enhancement of sugar-free food. The authors think that investigating the combined effects of more personal factors such as age, culture and so on adds to the accuracy of the results. Practical implications It seems that the stronger sensory capacities of women in terms of odor detection and recognition already confirmed in the literature extends to the cross-modal effects of this sensory detection and recognition on taste enhancement. It seems appropriate to tailor olfactory food advertising according to the gender of the target audience. Originality/value Odor-induced taste enhancement is still a novel subject in marketing. While most of the research has investigated the effects of smelling congruent odors on taste perception and food consumption among mixed groups of men and women, the value of this paper lies in the investigation of the potential moderating effects of gender on this relationship.

Cultural Effects on Technology Performance and Utilization

2011 ◽  
pp. 245-276
Author(s):  
Susan K. Lippert ◽  
John A. Volkmar
Keyword(s):  
Technology Acceptance ◽  
Technology Implementation ◽  
Reasoned Action ◽  
Gender Effects ◽  
Future Research ◽  
It Adoption ◽  
Men And Women ◽  
Cultural Effects ◽  
And Gender ◽  
Acceptance Model

Research to date on information technology (IT) adoption has focused primarily on homogeneous single country samples. This study integrates the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) and the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) with Hofstede’s (1980, 1983) Masculinity/Femininity (MAS-FEM) work value dimension to focus instead on post adoption attitudes and behaviors among a mixed gender sample of 366 United States and Canadian users of a specialized supply chain IT. We test 11 hypotheses about attitudes towards IT within and between subgroups of users classified by nationality and gender. Consistent with the national MAS-FEM scores and contrary to the conventional consideration of the U.S. and Canada as a unitary homogenous cultural unit, we found significant differences between U.S. men and women, but not between Canadian men and women. These results support the importance of the MAS-FEM dimension—independent of gender—on user attitudes and help to clarify the relationship between culture and gender effects. Implications for managers responsible for technology implementation and management are discussed and directions for future research are offered.

Asian Indians as a Minority in the United States: The Effect of Education, Occupations and Gender on Income

1989 ◽  
Vol 32 (4) ◽  
pp. 501-520 ◽  
Author(s):  
Herbert Barringer ◽  
Gene Kassebaum
Keyword(s):  
Asian Indian ◽  
Asian Indians ◽  
Model Minority ◽  
The United States ◽  
Gender Effects ◽  
Rates Of Return ◽  
Men And Women ◽  
Recent Immigrants ◽  
Pay Differences ◽  
And Gender

Are Asian Indians another “model minority” to the American mainstream? Multivariate analysis reveals Asian Indian income is a reflection of an unusual concentration of recent immigrants in professional and managerial occupations, an unusually high percentage of both men and women with education into college and beyond, but also, relative to U.S. whites, lower rates of return on years of education and occupational concentration. In addition, there are very strong gender effects even when the other factors are controlled, indicating direct gender pay differences.

Gender Effects on Managerial Communication and Work Performance

2013 ◽  
Vol 3 (2) ◽  
pp. 34-46 ◽  
Author(s):  
Rita S. Mano
Keyword(s):  
Work Performance ◽  
Gender Effects ◽  
Costs And Benefits ◽  
Preliminary Assessment ◽  
Men And Women ◽  
Male And Female ◽  
Face To Face ◽  
Managerial Communication ◽  
Management Positions ◽  
Technology And Communication

This study examines how email affects male and female managers’ work performance and stress. Drawing on theories of gender, technology and communication, and focusing on management positions we examine whether email has similar effects on men and women. It is shown that work performance is equally high among men and women but evokes more stress among women. The authors explain this as being due to women’s preference for face-to-face communication over technology-based media. Their results highlight the costs and benefits of both systems in management positions. These results provide a preliminary assessment of how technology-based communication gives rise to an “undercover” aspect of the gender divide in the workplace.

scholarly journals You Don’t Always Get What You Pay For: Bonuses, Perceived Income and Effort

2011 ◽  
Vol 12 (1) ◽  
pp. 1-10 ◽  
Author(s):  
Wendelin Schnedler
Keyword(s):  
Hazard Rate ◽  
Success Probability ◽  
Income Effect ◽  
Principal Agent ◽  
Marginal Effect ◽  
Optimal Contract ◽  
Incentive Effect ◽  
Probability Of Success ◽  
Practical Implications ◽  
Principal Agent Relationship

Abstract Consider a principal-agent relationship in which more effort by the agent raises the likelihood of success. This paper provides conditions such that no success bonus induces the agent to exert more effort and the optimal contract is independent of success. Moreover, success bonuses may even reduce effort and thus the probability of success. The reason is that bonuses increase the perceived income of the agent and can hence reduce his willingness to exert effort. This perceived income effect has to be weighed against the incentive effect of the bonus. The tradeoff is determined by the marginal effect of effort on the success probability in relation to this probability itself (success hazard-rate of effort). The paper also discusses practical implications of the finding.

A population-based twin study of self-esteem and gender

1998 ◽  
Vol 28 (6) ◽  
pp. 1403-1409 ◽  
Author(s):  
K. S. KENDLER ◽  
C. O. GARDNER ◽  
C. A. PRESCOTT
Keyword(s):  
Individual Differences ◽  
Significant Proportion ◽  
Self Esteem ◽  
Population Based ◽  
Gender Effects ◽  
Men And Women ◽  
Symptoms Of Depression ◽  
The Social ◽  
The Mean ◽  
And Gender

Background. Self-esteem (SE), a widely used construct in the social sciences, is usually conceptualized as a reflection of socialization and interpersonal experiences that may differ considerably between the genders.Methods. The Rosenberg self-esteem scale was assessed at personal interview in both members of 3793 unselected twin pairs (1517 male–male, 856 female–female and 1420 male–female) from the population-based Virginia Twin Registry. Gender effects on SE were assessed by both analysis of variance and biometrical twin modelling.Results. The mean SE score was slightly but significantly lower in women v. men, and in women who grew up with a male v. a female co-twin. Twin modelling suggested that: (i) individual differences in self-esteem in both men and women were best explained by genetic and individual-specific environment factors; (ii) heritability estimates were similar in women (32%) and in men (29%); and (iii) the same genetic factors that influenced SE in women also influenced SE in men. Analyses supported the validity of the equal environment assumption for SE. The heritability of SE cannot be explained by the moderate correlation between SE and symptoms of depression.Conclusions. These results are inconsistent with prominent gender-related aetiological models for SE, which postulate that individual differences arise from socialization experiences both within and outside the home of origin which differ widely for the two genders. Instead, a significant proportion of the population variance in SE is due to genetically-influenced temperamental variables that are the same in men and women.

scholarly journals Gender Effect on Views of Wisdom and Wisdom Levels

2021 ◽  
Vol 12 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mimi Xiong ◽  
Fengyan Wang
Keyword(s):  
Gender Differences ◽  
Coping Styles ◽  
Psychological Research ◽  
Gender Effect ◽  
Gender Effects ◽  
Future Research ◽  
Men And Women ◽  
Psychological Gender ◽  
And Gender

Gender differences in wisdom are an important theme in mythology, philosophy, psychology, and daily life. Based on the existing psychological research, consensus and dispute exist between the two genders on the views of wisdom and in the levels of wisdom. In terms of the views of wisdom, the way men and women view wisdom is highly similar, and from the perspectives of both ordinary people and professional researchers of wisdom psychology, wise men and women are extremely similar. Regarding wisdom level, research has revealed that, although significant gender effects exist in the level of overall wisdom, reflective and affective dimension, and interpersonal conflict coping styles, the effect sizes were small, which indicated that these gender differences were not obvious. It would be desirable for future research to combine multiple wisdom measurements, strengthen research on the psychological gender effect of wisdom, and focus on the moderating role of age on the relationship between wisdom and gender.

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