scholarly journals "You're just envious": Inferring benign and malicious envy from facial expressions and contextual information

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jens Lange ◽  
Agneta Fischer ◽  
Gerben van Kleef
Keyword(s):  
Social Perception ◽  
Contextual Information ◽  
Contextual Cues ◽  
Head Turning ◽  
Social Hierarchies ◽  
Total N ◽  
Malicious Envy ◽  
The Social ◽  
Benign Envy ◽  
Independent Effects

Envy shapes social hierarchies. To protect their rank, envied persons react to the threat posed by enviers. Doing so requires that envied persons initially perceive who envies them. However, a common perspective is that envy lacks a unique expression and that enviers disguise their experience, preventing the social perception of envy. In contrast to this perspective, recent evidence indicates that observers perceive benign and malicious forms of envy accurately when they can integrate information about targets. These findings suggest that observers infer envy based on multiple, contextual cues. We hypothesized that observers infer envy from facial and bodily expressions in comparison situations. Specifically, observers should infer benign envy when a target, who encounters an advantaged person, turns with disappointment toward the advantage. Conversely, observers should infer malicious envy when the target turns with anger toward the advantaged person. Three preregistered studies tested these hypotheses (total N = 693). In Studies 1 and 2, targets turned with an emotional or neutral expression either toward a person silhouette or a valuable object, and participants rated targets’ envy. In Study 3, participants performed the same task with more realistic stimuli. Across studies, emotional display and head turning had independent effects on inferences of benign and malicious envy. Furthermore, observers inferred envy more when the target expressed an emotion instead of remaining neutral. We discuss how the results inform research on the social perception of envy.

scholarly journals Accuracy and bias in the social perception of envy

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jens Lange ◽  
Birk Hagemeyer ◽  
Thomas Lösch ◽  
Katrin Rentzsch
Keyword(s):  
Social Perception ◽  
Malicious Envy ◽  
The Social ◽  
Extended Contact ◽  
Perception Bias ◽  
Benign Envy ◽  
The Relationship

Research converges on the notion that when people feel envy, they disguise it towards others. This implies that a person’s envy in a given situation cannot be accurately perceived by peers, as envy lacks a specific display that could be used as a perceptual cue. In contrast to this reasoning, research supports that envy contributes to the regulation of status hierarchies. If envy threatens status positions, people should be highly attentive to identify enviers. The combination of the two led us to expect that (a) state envy is difficult to accurately perceive in unacquainted persons and (b) dispositional enviers can be accurately identified by acquaintances. To investigate these hypotheses, we used actor-partner interdependence models to disentangle accuracy and bias in the perception of state and trait envy. In Study 1, 436 unacquainted dyad members competed against each other and rated their own and the partner’s state envy. Perception bias was significantly positive, yet perception accuracy was non-significant. In Study 2, 502 acquainted dyad members rated their own and the partner’s dispositional benign and malicious envy as well as trait authentic and hubristic pride. Accuracy coefficients were positive for dispositional benign and malicious envy and robust when controlling for trait authentic and hubristic pride. Moreover, accuracy for dispositional benign envy increased with the depth of the relationship. We conclude that enviers might be identifiable but only after extended contact and discuss how this contributes to research on the ambiguous experience of being envied.

scholarly journals The rules of implicit evaluation by race, religion, and age

2016 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jordan Axt
Keyword(s):  
Older Adult ◽  
Middle Age ◽  
Age Groups ◽  
Social World ◽  
Racial Group ◽  
Racial Groups ◽  
Social Evaluation ◽  
Social Hierarchies ◽  
Total N ◽  
The Social

The social world is stratified. Social hierarchies are known but oftendisavowed as anachronisms or unjust. Nonetheless, hierarchies may persistin social memory. In three studies (total *N* > 200,000), we foundevidence of social hierarchies in implicit evaluation by race, religion,and age. Across racial groups, implicit positive associations followedthis rule: *my racial group* > *Whites* > *Asians* > *Blacks *> *Hispanics*.Each racial group evaluated its own group most positively, with theremaining three groups ordered identically following it. Across religions,implicit positive associations followed this rule: *my religion* > *Christians> Jews > Hindus/Buddhists > Muslims*. A final task investigating positiveassociations with various age groups found this rule: *children > youngadult > middle-age adult > older adult *across all participant ages. Theseresults suggest that the rules of social evaluation are pervasivelyembedded in culture and mind.

scholarly journals Preprint: Lange and Crusius (2015) - The tango of two deadly sins: The social-functional relation of envy and pride

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jens Lange ◽  
Jan Crusius
Keyword(s):  
Functional Relation ◽  
Social Phenomenon ◽  
Competitive Situation ◽  
Malicious Envy ◽  
The Social ◽  
Benign Envy ◽  
Environment Study ◽  
Dominance Study ◽  
And Behavior

Envy stems from a social comparison with a superior standard. Its 2 distinct forms are directed at changing this situation in different ways, either by becoming as successful as the envied person (in benign envy) or by lowering the envied person’s advantage (in malicious envy). In essence, envy is thus a social phenomenon. Nevertheless, most previous research has focused on its underlying intrapersonal processes, overlooking envy’s interpersonal core. In contrast, we show in 6 studies (N = 1,513) that envy and pride are intertwined in a social-functional relationship. Envy and pride often co-occur (Study 1) and pride displays enhance envious feelings (Studies 2 and 3). Specifically, authentic (success attributed to effort) and hubristic pride (success attributed to talent) modulate envious intentions and behavior toward their benign and malicious form (Study 2 to 6). This effect is mediated via liking, perceived prestige, and perceived dominance (Study 4). In accordance with a social-functional approach, the effects emerge only when authentic and hubristic pride are expressed by the superior person and not when the respective information about the superior person’s feelings is simply available in the environment (Study 5). These effects are present when participants recall envy situations (Study 1), when they imagine being in a competitive situation (Studies 3, 4, and 5), or when envy is elicited in situ (Studies 2 and 6). Our findings show the value of studying envy as a social phenomenon and open up numerous avenues for research on envy at the interpersonal and intergroup level.

scholarly journals Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities

2017 ◽  
Vol 44 (4) ◽  
pp. 601-614 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jens Lange ◽  
Delroy L. Paulhus ◽  
Jan Crusius
Keyword(s):  
Behavioral Intentions ◽  
Dark Triad ◽  
Experimental Results ◽  
Dark Side ◽  
Antisocial Behaviors ◽  
Total N ◽  
Functional Value ◽  
Malicious Envy ◽  
Benign Envy ◽  
Trait Correlations

Researchers have recently drawn a contrast between two forms of envy: benign and malicious envy. In three studies (total N = 3,123), we challenge the assumption that malicious envy is destructive, whereas benign envy is entirely constructive. Instead, both forms have links with the Dark Triad of personality. Benign envy is associated with Machiavellian behaviors, whereas malicious envy is associated with both Machiavellian and psychopathic behaviors. In Study 1, this pattern emerged from meta-analyzed trait correlations. In Study 2, a manipulation affecting the envy forms mediated an effect on antisocial behavioral intentions. Study 3 replicated these patterns by linking envy to specific antisocial behaviors and their impact on status in the workplace. Together, our correlational and experimental results suggest that the two forms of envy can both be malevolent. Instead of evaluating envy’s morality, we propose to focus on its functional value.

scholarly journals Preprint - The painful duality of envy: Evidence for an integrative theory and a meta-analysis on the relation of envy and schadenfreude

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jens Lange ◽  
Aaron C. Weidman ◽  
Jan Crusius
Keyword(s):  
Meta Analysis ◽  
The Other ◽  
Factor Analyses ◽  
Confirmatory Factor Analyses ◽  
Total N ◽  
Comprehensive Theory ◽  
Malicious Envy ◽  
Confirmatory Factor ◽  
Benign Envy ◽  
Data Driven Approach

Despite envy’s importance as a driver of social behavior, scholars disagree on its conceptualization. We review the literature and distinguish three incongruent theories: (a) Malicious Envy Theory (i.e., envy as uniform and malicious), (b) Dual Envy Theory (i.e., envy as taking on two forms, benign and malicious), and (c) Pain Theory of Envy (i.e., envy as uniform and driven by pain). Moreover, within and across theories, operationalizations of envy have included various different components. We integrate these conceptualizations using a data-driven approach, deriving a comprehensive theory of envy in five studies (total N = 1,237)—the Pain-driven Dual Envy (PaDE) Theory. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of an exhaustive set of envy components (Studies 1-4) suggest that envy consists of three factors: Pain (i.e., preoccupation with the envy-eliciting situation, inferiority), predicts both benign envy (i.e., desire for the envy object, improvement motivation, emulation of the other), and malicious envy (i.e., communication about the other, directed aggression, nondirected aggression). An experience-sampling study (Study 5) suggests that pain constitutes a quickly fading reaction, whereas benign and malicious envy are enduring attitudinal constructs. We apply this theory in a meta-analysis on the controversial relation of envy and schadenfreude (N = 4,366), finding that envy and schadenfreude are more strongly and positively correlated to the extent that the respective research operationalizes envy as malicious, compared to as pain or benign envy. We discuss how the PaDE Theory can illuminate research on envy in diverse settings, and envy’s relation to other distinct emotions.

scholarly journals How Envy and Being Envied Shape Social Hierarchies

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jens Lange ◽  
Jan Crusius
Keyword(s):  
Personal Control ◽  
Emotional Reactions ◽  
Future Research ◽  
Social Hierarchies ◽  
Dynamic Relationship ◽  
Functional Value ◽  
Malicious Envy ◽  
Benign Envy ◽  
Broad Framework ◽  
Authentic Pride

When people interact with each other, they form social hierarchies. Being higher up in a hierarchy has numerous benefits. Consequently, when people believe that their rank is threatened, they should react strongly to address this threat. We propose that the emotion envy is such a reaction, regulating social hierarchies in two ways. First, persons’ socially-valued successes elicit envy in inferior persons. Second, inferior persons’ envy in turn elicits emotional reactions in successful persons. Envying and being envied thus occur in a dynamic relationship. We argue that the complexities of this dynamic can be unraveled by considering that (a) social hierarchies form in different ways, (b) emotions are multifaceted experiences whose facets are accentuated by relevant situations, and c) people may or may not overtly express these emotions. We review evidence for a broad framework that considers these points. According to this framework, persons can express their socially-valued successes with authentic or with hubristic pride. Authentic pride signals to others that the success is based on a prestige strategy. In response, inferior persons may perceive personal control to change their situation. This elicits benign envy, involving cognitions and motivations aimed at improving their position. If enviers express benign envy, envied persons are more likely to approach them. Hubristic pride instead signals that the success is based on a dominance strategy. In response, inferior persons may perceive superior persons’ advantages as undeserved. This elicits malicious envy, involving cognitions and motivations directed at harming the superior persons’ positions. If enviers express malicious envy, envied persons are more likely to avoid them. The framework integrates diverse empirical findings on the socially-functional value of envy in regulating social hierarchies and provides avenues for future research.

scholarly journals Preprint - Elucidating the dark side of envy: Distinctive links of benign and malicious envy with dark personalities

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jens Lange ◽  
Delroy L Paulhus ◽  
Jan Crusius
Keyword(s):  
Behavioral Intentions ◽  
Dark Triad ◽  
Experimental Results ◽  
Dark Side ◽  
Antisocial Behaviors ◽  
Total N ◽  
Functional Value ◽  
Malicious Envy ◽  
Benign Envy ◽  
Trait Correlations

Researchers have recently drawn a contrast between two forms of envy: benign and malicious envy. In three studies (total N = 3,123), we challenge the assumption that malicious envy is destructive, whereas benign envy is entirely constructive. Instead, both forms have links with the Dark Triad of personality. Benign envy is associated with Machiavellian behaviors, whereas malicious envy is associated with both Machiavellian and psychopathic behaviors. In Study 1, this pattern emerged in meta-analyzed trait correlations. In Study 2, a manipulation affecting the envy forms mediated an effect on antisocial behavioral intentions. Study 3 replicated these patterns by linking envy to specific antisocial behaviors and their impact on status in the workplace. Together, our correlational and experimental results suggest that the two forms of envy can both be malevolent. Instead of evaluating envy’s morality, we propose to focus on its functional value.

scholarly journals Differential virtue discounting: Public generosity is seen as more selfish than public impartiality

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Gordon Kraft-Todd ◽  
Max Kleiman-Weiner ◽  
Liane Young
Keyword(s):  
Social Perception ◽  
The Novel ◽  
Online Experiments ◽  
Total N ◽  
Social Credit ◽  
Open Questions ◽  
The Social ◽  
Shed Light ◽  
Do So

There is a paradox in our desire to be seen as virtuous. If we do not overtly display our virtues, others will not be able to see them; yet, if we do overtly display our virtues, others may think that we do so only for social credit. Here, we investigate how virtue signaling works across two distinct virtues—generosity and impartiality—in eleven online experiments (total N=4,586). We demonstrate the novel phenomenon of differential virtue discounting, revealing that participants perceive actors who demonstrate virtue in public to be less virtuous than actors who demonstrate virtue in private, and, critically, that this effect is greater for generosity than impartiality. Further, we provide evidence for the mechanism underlying these judgments, showing that they are mediated by perceived selfish motivations. We discuss how these findings and our novel terminology can shed light on open questions in the social perception of reputation and motivation.

scholarly journals Preprint - Schadenfreude as social-functional dominance regulator

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jens Lange ◽  
Lea Boecker
Keyword(s):  
Social Functioning ◽  
Functional Approach ◽  
The Other ◽  
Total N ◽  
The Public ◽  
Public Expression ◽  
Social Emotion ◽  
Malicious Envy ◽  
The Social ◽  
Authentic Pride

Schadenfreude follows from misfortunes happening to other individuals. It is therefore an essentially social emotion. However, previous research has mainly explored its intrapersonal functions. Complementing these findings, we propose a social-functional approach to schadenfreude. Seven studies (total N = 2,362) support that (a) schadenfreude is a reaction to a misfortune befalling an initially dominance-displaying individual and (b) the public expression of schadenfreude downregulates the dominance of the other person. Specifically, schadenfreude towards initially successful persons was intensified when they displayed dominance (i.e., hubristic pride or general dominance) instead of prestige (i.e., authentic pride or general prestige) or other displays (i.e., embarrassment) following their achievement (Studies 1 to 3). This effect was mediated via inferiors’ malicious envy (Study 4). The public expression of schadenfreude then reduced the perceived dominance of the initially successful person compared to private expressions of schadenfreude and awkward silence (Studies 5 and 6). This dominance reduction further had downstream consequences for the superior person (Study 7). The findings underline the social functioning of schadenfreude and provide avenues for research on schadenfreude at the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and intergroup level.

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