Formalizing Clientelism in Kenya: From Harambee to the Constituency Development Fund

Legislative Reforms

Why does clientelism persist? What determines how politicians signal responsiveness to voters and exert effort towards fulfilling campaign promises? This article explores how state capacity, legislative institutional strength, and established ideas about what politicians can do structure the political market in legislative elections. The argument herein is that campaign promises must be credible to have any currency. Therefore, programmatic campaign promises are likely to be more credible in countries with strong states and legislatures, while clientelism predominates in weak states whose legislatures cannot compel the executive branch to implement legislators’ campaign promises. Historical experience also matters in shaping shared expectations of what politicians can do and the feasible sets of credible campaign promises. I support these arguments with a historical institutionalist analysis of Kenya’s Harambee Movement and the Constituency Development Fund (CDF), as well as evidence from a nationally representative survey. Findings corroborate the claim that clientelism persists when it is the most credible means of fulfilling campaign promises. This article also shows that rising costs can precipitate legislative reforms away from clientelism – as happened with the creation of Kenya’s CDF in 2003. Overall, this article increases our understanding of the origins and persistence of clientelism in low-income states and potential avenues for reform towards programmatic politics.

Gestational weight gain in low-income and middle-income countries: a modelling analysis using nationally representative data

BMJ Global Health ◽

10.1136/bmjgh-2020-003423 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 5 (11) ◽

pp. e003423

Author(s):

Dongqing Wang ◽

Molin Wang ◽

Anne Marie Darling ◽

Nandita Perumal ◽

Enju Liu ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Weight Gain ◽

North Africa ◽

Low Income ◽

Sub Saharan Africa ◽

Middle Income ◽

Middle Income Countries ◽

Gestational Weight ◽

Latin America And Caribbean ◽

Sub Saharan

IntroductionGestational weight gain (GWG) has important implications for maternal and child health and is an ideal modifiable factor for preconceptional and antenatal care. However, the average levels of GWG across all low-income and middle-income countries of the world have not been characterised using nationally representative data.MethodsGWG estimates across time were computed using data from the Demographic and Health Surveys Program. A hierarchical model was developed to estimate the mean total GWG in the year 2015 for all countries to facilitate cross-country comparison. Year and country-level covariates were used as predictors, and variable selection was guided by the model fit. The final model included year (restricted cubic splines), geographical super-region (as defined by the Global Burden of Disease Study), mean adult female body mass index, gross domestic product per capita and total fertility rate. Uncertainty ranges (URs) were generated using non-parametric bootstrapping and a multiple imputation approach. Estimates were also computed for each super-region and region.ResultsLatin America and Caribbean (11.80 kg (95% UR: 6.18, 17.41)) and Central Europe, Eastern Europe and Central Asia (11.19 kg (95% UR: 6.16, 16.21)) were the super-regions with the highest GWG estimates in 2015. Sub-Saharan Africa (6.64 kg (95% UR: 3.39, 9.88)) and North Africa and Middle East (6.80 kg (95% UR: 3.17, 10.43)) were the super-regions with the lowest estimates in 2015. With the exception of Latin America and Caribbean, all super-regions were below the minimum GWG recommendation for normal-weight women, with Sub-Saharan Africa and North Africa and Middle East estimated to meet less than 60% of the minimum recommendation.ConclusionThe levels of GWG are inadequate in most low-income and middle-income countries and regions. Longitudinal monitoring systems and population-based interventions are crucial to combat inadequate GWG in low-income and middle-income countries.

Inequities in the allocation of medical resources in China’s Township Health Centers

China Agricultural Economic Review ◽

10.1108/caer-11-2015-0170 ◽

2016 ◽

Vol 8 (4) ◽

pp. 637-646 ◽

Cited By ~ 4

Author(s):

Yue Ma ◽

Linxiu Zhang ◽

Matthew Boswell

Keyword(s):

Low Income ◽

Rural Areas ◽

Rural China ◽

Health Centers ◽

Content Type ◽

Representative Study ◽

Use Of Data ◽

Fixed Assets ◽

Academy Of Sciences

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to produce a high-quality measure of the nature of healthcare resources available in China’s Township Health Centers (THCs), paying particular attention to equity between high- and low-income areas. Design/methodology/approach This study makes use of data from a nearly nationally representative survey in rural China conducted by the Center for Chinese Agricultural Policy at the Chinese Academy of Sciences in 2011. The samples of towns were selected randomly from 25 counties located in five provinces from different regions of China. Data were collected through questionnaires and direct observation. Findings The THCs located in rich areas have higher levels of human resources than poor areas. THCs in rich areas also have more fixed assets than those in poor areas. In fact, even though the Chinese Ministry of Health mandates that all THCs have certain basic levels of medical equipment and facilities, many THCs in poor areas do not have them. The allocation of mandated equipment is unequal. Practical implications These findings suggest that China’s government should pay more attention to THCs located in poor areas, especially in light of new initiatives to improve health care in poor rural areas. Originality/value This is the first nationally representative study to employ rigorous empirics to investigate the extent of inequality in allocation of resources within THCs across China.

Access and Mobilization: How Social Capital Relates to Low-Income Youth’s Postsecondary Educational (PSE) Attainment

Youth & Society ◽

10.1177/0044118x15607163 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 50 (4) ◽

pp. 439-461 ◽

Cited By ~ 8

Author(s):

Mariam Ashtiani ◽

Cynthia Feliciano

Keyword(s):

Higher Education ◽

Social Capital ◽

Low Income ◽

Degree Attainment ◽

Bachelor's Degree ◽

Mentoring Relationships ◽

College Entry ◽

Low Income Families ◽

Bachelor's Degree Attainment

Youth from advantaged backgrounds have more social relationships that provide access to resources facilitating their educational success than those from low-income families. Does access to and mobilization of social capital also relate to success among the few low-income youth who “overcome the odds” and persist in higher education? Using nationally representative longitudinal data over a 14-year period, this study shows that although access to social capital in families, schools, and communities is positively related to entry into higher education, most forms of adolescent social capital are not independently associated with degree attainment. However, the mobilization of social capital through certain types of mentorship benefits both the college entry and bachelor’s degree attainment of low-income youth, more so than for their more economically advantaged peers. Findings suggest that developing enduring mentoring relationships and new social resources rooted in the higher education context may be especially important in facilitating degree attainment for young adults from low-income backgrounds.

Behavioural response to the Covid-19 pandemic in South Africa

PLoS ONE ◽

10.1371/journal.pone.0250269 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 16 (4) ◽

pp. e0250269

Author(s):

Umakrishnan Kollamparambil ◽

Adeola Oyenubi

Keyword(s):

South Africa ◽

Low Income ◽

Close Contact ◽

Preventive Strategy ◽

Social Distancing ◽

Response Behaviour ◽

Health Response ◽

Increased Risk ◽

Preventive Behaviour ◽

Background Given the economic and social divide that exists in South Africa, it is critical to manage the health response of its residents to the Covid-19 pandemic within the different socio-economic contexts that define the lived realities of individuals. Objective The objective of this study is to analyse the Covid-19 preventive behaviour and the socio-economic drivers behind the health-response behaviour. Data The study employs data from waves 1 and 2 of South Africa’s nationally representative National Income Dynamics Study (NIDS)—Coronavirus Rapid Mobile Survey (CRAM). The nationally representative panel data has a sample of 7073 individuals in Wave 1 and 5676 individuals in Wave 2. Methods The study uses bivariate statistics, concentration indices and multivariate estimation techniques, ranging from a probit, control-function approach, special-regressor method and seemingly unrelated regression to account for endogeneity while identifying the drivers of the response behaviour. Findings The findings indicate enhanced behavioural responsiveness to Covid-19. Preventive behaviour is evolving over time; the use of face mask has overtaken handwashing as the most utilised preventive measure. Other measures, like social distancing, avoiding close contact, avoiding big groups and staying at home, have declined between the two periods of the study. There is increased risk perception with significant concentration among the higher income groups, the educated and older respondents. Our findings validate the health-belief model, with perceived risk, self-efficacy, perceived awareness and barriers to preventive strategy adoption identified as significant drivers of health-response behaviour. Measures such as social distancing, avoiding close contact, and the use of sanitisers are practised more by the rich and educated, but not by the low-income respondents. Conclusion The respondents from lower socio-economic backgrounds are associated with optimism bias and face barriers to the adoption of preventive strategies. This requires targeted policy attention in order to make response behaviour effective.

Infant Food Security in New Zealand: A Multidimensional Index Developed from Cohort Data

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health ◽

10.3390/ijerph16020283 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 16 (2) ◽

pp. 283 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Deborah Schlichting ◽

Ladan Hashemi ◽

Cameron Grant

Keyword(s):

Food Security ◽

New Zealand ◽

Low Income ◽

Vegetable Consumption ◽

Poor Quality ◽

Dietary Quality ◽

Infant Food ◽

Minority Ethnic Groups ◽

Demographic Covariates

Food security (FS) during infancy is associated with lifelong outcomes. New Zealand is a developed economy that reports poor childhood nutrition-related health statistics, particularly among minority children, yet has no measure of FS applicable to infancy. The objective was to develop an FS index for New Zealand infants and examine its association with demographic covariates and health outcomes. Within a large (n = 6853) nationally representative cohort, variables describing infant food consumption, breastfeeding, and maternal food-related coping methods were collected from mothers during late infancy. An FS index was derived using confirmatory factor analysis. Associations were assessed by logistic regressions and described using odds ratios (OR) and ≥95% confidence intervals (CI). Fifteen percent of the cohort was highly FS, 43% tenuously food insecure (FIS), and 16% highly food insecure (FIS). Infants from minority ethnic groups had lower odds of being food secure, as did those born to the youngest mothers, mothers who smoked, or those who lived in low-income households. FIS infants had higher odds of morbidity. Interventions to improve infant FS should focus on improving dietary quality, and should give particular consideration to minority infants. We identified that FIS shows wide ethnic and socioeconomic inequity, and is associated with poorer health. The most important driving factors of FIS included poor quality weaning diets, as well as poverty and its proxies. Any interventions to improve infant FS should focus on increasing fruit and vegetable consumption to recommended intake levels, and should give particular consideration to minority infants.

How Is Climate Change Knowledge Distributed among the Population in Singapore? A Demographic Analysis of Actual Knowledge and Illusory Knowledge

Sustainability ◽

10.3390/su12093782 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 12 (9) ◽

pp. 3782

Author(s):

Xiaodong Yang ◽

Lai Wei ◽

Qi Su

Keyword(s):

Climate Change ◽

Low Income ◽

Demographic Analysis ◽

Actual Knowledge ◽

Deficit Model ◽

Demographic Groups ◽

Types Of Knowledge ◽

Cognitive Miser

Due to the crucial role of knowledge in promoting public engagement with climate change, this study made an in-depths examination of the distribution of climate change knowledge among different demographic groups. Guided by information deficit model and cognitive miser model, two types of knowledge were investigated, including actual knowledge and illusory knowledge. Using a nationally representative survey in Singapore, this study found demographic effects in climate change knowledge distribution. Specifically, a series of independent sample t-test revealed that the males had more actual knowledge of climate change than the females. The middle aged and elderly adults had less actual knowledge but more illusory knowledge of climate change than the young adults. Compare to the more educated people, the less educated people had more illusory knowledge but less actual knowledge of climate change. People from low-income households reported lower levels of actual knowledge but higher levels of illusory knowledge than those from high-income households. Regarding these significant differences in climate change knowledge among different demographic groups, possible reasons for these variations and implications for designing public education programs are discussed.

Do institutions matter?

Journal of Enterprising Communities People and Places in the Global Economy ◽

10.1108/jec-04-2018-0027 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 13 (3) ◽

pp. 319-332

Author(s):

Habiba Ibrahim

Keyword(s):

Social Networks ◽

Low Income ◽

Qualitative Interviews ◽

Community Support ◽

Institutional Perspective ◽

Content Type ◽

Credit Line ◽

Institutional Determinants ◽

The Usa ◽

Purpose Guided by the institutional theory of savings, the purpose of this study is to assess the institutional elements of rotating, savings and credit associations (ROSCAs) that enable participants to save. Design/methodology/approach The study used data from in-depth qualitative interviews (N = 10) conducted among the ROSCA group leaders from African immigrant communities in the USA. Findings The primary goal for joining the ROSCA group among participants is to achieve economic stability. The results of the study postulate that, through institutional mechanisms and social networks, ROSCAs create an environment for families to save and invest. The emphasis on the concept of “you cannot save alone” underscores the importance of supportive structures to enable low-income households to save. Although “alternative savings programs” such as ROSCAs are imagined as something that less well-to-do persons use, the findings from this study demonstrate that such strategies also appeal to some people with higher socioeconomic status. This appeal and utility speaks to the importance of ROSCAs as an institutional response, rather than just an informal arrangement among persons known to each other. Research limitations/implications It is prudent to bear in mind that the study sample is not nationally representative, and therefore, the results presented cannot be generalized to immigrants across the country. However, as one of the few ROSCA studies in the USA, the findings from this study make generous contributions to the immigrants’ savings and ROSCA practices literature. Practical implications ROSCAs could be used as a bridge to the formal financial institutions. Non-profit agencies working with these communities could work with these groups to report ROSCA payments to the major credit bureaus, to help them build a credit line in their new country. Originality/value Previous studies of ROSCAs have assessed ROSCAs as community support systems and social networks. The current study has analyzed ROSCAs from an institutional perspective by examining the institutional characteristics of ROSCAs comparable to the institutional determinants of savings that enable savings among the participants.

Changes in Food Consumption of WIC-Participating Infants and Children, 2008 vs. 2016 (P11-066-19)

Current Developments in Nutrition ◽

10.1093/cdn/nzz048.p11-066-19 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 3 (Supplement_1) ◽

Author(s):

Joanne Guthrie ◽

Andrea Anater ◽

Diane Catellier ◽

Wendy Johnson ◽

Erin Quann

Keyword(s):

Nutrition Education ◽

Low Income ◽

Fruits And Vegetables ◽

Infants And Children ◽

Expert Advice ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Reduced Fat ◽

Food Packages ◽

Food Package ◽

Abstract Objectives The Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) provides nutritionally at-risk low-income pregnant women, infants and children up to 5 years of age with foods tailored to their nutritional needs, along with nutrition education. In 2009, USDA made major revisions to WIC food packages to better conform to expert dietary guidance. Notable changes included increased fruits and vegetables, and lower-fat milk for children 2 years and older. This study uses data from the 2008 and 2016 Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study (FITS) to compare foods consumed by children participating in WIC to foods consumed by children not participating in WIC before and after the food package changes. Methods FITS 2008 (n = 3273) and 2016 (n = 3235) are cross-sectional nationally-representative surveys of caregivers of children < 4 years living in the U.S. Trained telephone interviewers collected 24-hour dietary data. Tests of interaction were used to determine whether the trends in consumption of select foods between 2008 and 2016 differed between children who participate in WIC compared to those who do not, while controlling for income and household size. Results The percentage of WIC infants (6-11.9 months) eating vegetables increased from 2008 to 2016, but the % eating fruit (including 100% juice) was unchanged. WIC infants shifted from being less likely than non-WIC infants to eat babyfood fruits and vegetables in 2008 to being more likely to eat them in 2016; at the same time, the % of WIC participants consuming non babyfood fruit and vegetables declined. The percentage of WIC children (12-23.9 months) drinking whole milk increased and drinking reduced fat (2%) milk decreased in 2016 compared to 2008; whereas older WIC children (24-47.9 months) were more likely to drink low or nonfat milk and less likely to drink reduced-fat milk. Conclusions Babyfood fruits and vegetables, added to the WIC food package in 2009, have become important contributors to WIC infants’ fruit and vegetable intakes. In 2016, WIC children were more likely to follow expert advice to shift to lower fat milks at ages 2 and above. Significant changes in the relationship of these food patterns to WIC participation between 2008 and 2016 suggest an important public health role of the revised WIC food packages. Funding Sources FITS 2008 and 2016 supported by Nestlé Research Center, Lausanne Switzerland.

Teacher Turnover in Rwanda

Journal of African Economies ◽

10.1093/jae/ejaa013 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Andrew Zeitlin

Keyword(s):

Learning Outcomes ◽

Low Income ◽

Primary Schools ◽

Teacher Turnover ◽

Early Career ◽

Low Income Countries ◽

Early Career Teachers ◽

The Public ◽

Teacher Skills ◽

Abstract Despite widely documented shortfalls of teacher skills and effort, there is little systematic evidence of rates of teacher turnover in low-income countries. I investigated the incidence and consequences of teacher turnover in Rwandan public primary schools over the period from 2016 to 2019. I combined the universe of teacher placement records with student enrollment figures and school-average Primary Leaving Exam scores in a nationally representative sample of 259 schools. Results highlight five features of teacher turnover. First, rates of teacher turnover are high: annually, 20% of teachers separate from their jobs, of which 11% exit from the public-sector teaching workforce. Second, the burden of teacher churn is higher in schools with low learning levels and, perhaps surprisingly, in low pupil–teacher-ratio schools. Third, teacher turnover is concentrated among early-career teachers, male teachers and those assigned to teach Math. Fourth, replacing teachers quickly after they exit is a challenge; 23% of exiting teachers are not replaced the following year. And fifth, teacher turnover is associated with subsequent declines in learning outcomes. On average, the loss of a teacher is associated with a reduction in learning levels of 0.05 standard deviations. In addition to class-size increases, a possible mechanism for these learning outcomes is the prevalence of teachers teaching outside of their areas of subject expertise: in any given year, at least 21% of teachers teach in subjects in which they have not been trained. Taken together, these results suggest that the problem of teacher turnover is substantial in magnitude and consequential for learning outcomes in schools.

Low-Income Female Students and the Reversal of the Black-White Gap in High School Graduation

AERA Open ◽

10.1177/2332858420915203 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 6 (2) ◽

pp. 233285842091520

Author(s):

Brian Clark ◽

Ying Shi

Keyword(s):

High School ◽

Low Income ◽

High School Graduation ◽

Risky Behaviors ◽

Female Students ◽

Tailored Interventions ◽

Percentage Points ◽

Racial Gaps ◽

School Graduation ◽

This article shows that the traditional narrative of Black-White high school graduation gaps is inverted among economically disadvantaged female students. Two nationally representative surveys and statewide administrative data demonstrate that low-income White females graduate at rates 5 to 6 percentage points lower than Black peers despite having higher test scores. Greater rates of tobacco, alcohol, and illicit drug use among White females account for one third of the attainment disparity. Since the early onset of substance use among low-income White females predicts lower attainment, more research on the factors leading to risky behaviors and their correlates during early adolescence is warranted. Examining racial gaps in high school graduation at the intersection of gender and income categories can inform more tailored interventions.