Until fairly recently, most African military history was portrayed in terms of antithetical stereotypes. Until about the mid-20th century, Western observers often described a “dark continent” of incessant conflict waged by savage warriors. The independence era brought radically different perspectives, however, as Africanist scholars, seeking to refute allegations of rampant violence, often depicted African warfare as harmlessly ritualistic. For many years, while informed reconstructions of African social, economic, environmental, and gender history appeared, the scholarly attention paid to African military history was generally sparse and superficial. To many, African military studies were deemed politically incorrect, and few Africanists could be considered (or indeed would consider themselves) military historians. From about 1965 to 1980, there was a brief surge in academic interest in military history, during which some studies still regarded as pioneering classics were written. Many of those focused on the 19th century, and especially on resistance to imperial conquest. But in certain parts of the continent, notably North Africa, African military history was written not just by Africanist scholars but by classicists who examined it within the context of the ancient Mediterranean world, and Islamic and European historians who viewed it in terms of comparative global themes: struggles for religious ascendancy, the spread of gunpowder weapons, and the Military Revolution. As burgeoning conflict beset the continent in the post-independence era, attention to military studies increased, often with the goal of effecting conflict resolution. From the 1990s, as horrific “ragged” warfare became ever more prevalent, a veritable flood of investigations appeared, most written by social scientists rather than historians. Also, to an extent far beyond other sub-fields, African military history often has been written not for an academic readership but for varied audiences. Much of this historical writing has taken the form of popular history aimed at general readers or military buffs, and other studies have been written for specialized audiences such as professional soldiers, war gamers, or students of uniformology. While academics have typically denigrated such works, some popular histories have represented important milestones in the evolution of African military historiography and have immensely impacted wider perceptions of African warfare. What many would deem the minutiae of military costume or the intricacies of combat performance sometimes hold valuable keys to understanding broader aspects of African military culture and ethos. This article strives to reflect the rich, diverse historiography of African military history by providing the reader with a wide range of studies chosen to enhance an appreciation of this vast and complex topic. It is also hoped that the bibliography will help the reader to appreciate that the study of Africa’s military heritage, far from being aberrant or irrelevant, in fact illuminates a vital, ongoing thread of the African historical experience.
THE MERAH MOSQUE AND THE ASY SYAFI’I MOSQUE CONSIDERED AS LANDMARKS BASED ON THE LOCAL COMMUNITY’S RECOGNITION IN CIREBON’S ARAB PANJUNAN KAMPONG
