Surface and Groundwater Quality in South African Area—Analysis of the Most Critical Pollutants for Drinking Purposes

According to a recent report by World Health Organization, the countries which still have limited access to water for drinking purposes are mainly those in the Sub-Saharan region. (Potential) water sources for drinking needs may contain different contaminants. In this context, the current study consists in an overview of the quality of surface water and groundwater in the Republic of South Africa (RSA) and Mozambique (MZ) and provides the variability ranges of the concentrations of the main pollutants in the two countries. Chemical and physical characteristics and concentrations of macropollutants, inorganic compounds (metals) and selected microorganisms were collected for surface water and groundwater and compared with the standards for drinking water set in the two countries. It was found that in surface water, microorganisms were always at very high concentrations. In addition, nickel (in RSA) and boron and chlorine (in MZ) were the most critical compounds. It emerged that in groundwater, arsenic, lead and chlorine (in RSA) and boron, sodium and chlorine (in MZ) were the main critical pollutants. Adequate treatments in the construction of new drinking water plants in rural areas should be selected on the basis of these most critical compounds and their observed variability over time.

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Surface Water and Groundwater Quality in South Africa and Mozambique—Analysis of the Most Critical Pollutants for Drinking Purposes and Challenges in Water Treatment Selection

Water ◽

10.3390/w12010305 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 12 (1) ◽

pp. 305 ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

Paola Verlicchi ◽

Vittoria Grillini

Keyword(s):

South Africa ◽

Surface Water ◽

Rural Areas ◽

Urban Areas ◽

World Health ◽

Critical Parameters ◽

Drinking Purposes ◽

Surface Water And Groundwater ◽

Sub Saharan ◽

Health Organization

According to a recent report by the World Health Organization (WHO), the countries which still have limited access to water for drinking purposes are mainly those in the Sub-Saharan region. In this context, the current study provides an overview of the quality of surface water and groundwater in rural and peri-urban areas of the Republic of South Africa (RSA) and Mozambique (MZ) in terms of concentrations of conventional pollutants, inorganic chemicals, microorganisms, and micropollutants. Their values were compared with the drinking water standards available for the two countries. Regarding surface water, it was found that microorganisms occur at high concentrations; nickel (RSA) and boron (MZ) are other critical parameters. Regarding groundwater, arsenic and lead (RSA) and boron, sodium, and chloride (MZ) are the main critical substances. With regard to micropollutants, their surface water concentrations are much higher than those in European rivers. The highest values were for ibuprofen, acetylsalicylic acid, clozapine, and estriol. Suitable treatment is necessary to produce safe water depending on the main critical pollutants but, at the same time, action should be taken to improve wastewater treatment in rural areas to improve and safeguard surface water bodies and groundwater which are sources for drinking needs.

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Examination of Surface Water Along River-Rima Floodplain in Wamakko, Sokoto State, Nigeria.

Journal of Geological Research ◽

10.30564/jgr.v2i3.2149 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 2 (3) ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Abdulqadir Abubakar Usman ◽

Murtala Abubakar Gada ◽

Aminu Muhammad Bayawa ◽

Ibrahim Mustapha Dankani ◽

Saadu Umar Wali

Keyword(s):

Drinking Water ◽

Surface Water ◽

Principal Component ◽

Hierarchical Cluster ◽

World Health ◽

Coliform Bacteria ◽

Municipal Sewage ◽

Bacteria Growth ◽

Anthropogenic Inputs ◽

Health Organization

This study examined the hydrochemistry of surface water along the River-Rima floodplain area. Five sampling locations were purposively selected, and, in each point, three samples were taken from surface water (river). The sampling was repeated after 20 days. Thus, a total of 30 samples were collected. Water samples obtained were subjected to laboratory tests. Results revealed that BOD, TDS, Mg2+, and Fe3+ are above the World Health Organization (WHO) and Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON) reference guidelines for drinking water quality. Isolates detected from the coliform bacteriological analysis include Enterobacter aerogene, Escherichia coli, and Citrobacter freundii with most of the samples showing coliform bacteria growth above the SON standard for drinking water. Hence, the water in the River-Rima floodplain of the Wamakko area is of low quality and unsafe for drinking. Results of principal component analysis (PCA) revealed external influences such as pollutant wash off and rock weathering as controls on hydrochemistry of surface water. There is some indication of anthropogenic inputs (Cl-, NO3-, and PO42-) based on hierarchical cluster analysis. Elements including Cl-, NO3-, and PO42- are increasingly added into surface water from human activities, mainly agriculture, and municipal sewage.

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Self-supply as an alternative approach to water access in rural scattered regions: evidence from a rural microcatchment in Colombia

Ingenieria y Universidad ◽

10.11144/javeriana.iyu20-1.ssaa ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 20 (1) ◽

Author(s):

Wilmar Torres-López ◽

Inés Restrepo-Tarquino ◽

Charlotte Patterson ◽

John Gowing ◽

Isabel Dominguez Rivera

Keyword(s):

Drinking Water ◽

Rural Areas ◽

Urban Areas ◽

Water Sources ◽

External Support ◽

World Health ◽

Unfinished Business ◽

Development Agenda ◽

Thermotolerant Coliforms ◽

Health Organization

<p>Globally, access to improved water sources is lower in rural areas compared to urban areas. Furthermore, in rural areas many people use water from individual systems they have developed with their investments, often without external support. This phenomenon has been called Self-supply. Self-supply ranges from simple to complex systems and different water sources. Water quality varies, from achieving World Health Organization (WHO) standards (0 CFU/100 ml) to systems that provide water posing high risks to human health. While most studies in Self-supply have been developed in Africa, little is known in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). This research explores Self-supply in a rural microcatchment in Colombia (LAC). Data was collected through household and drinking water surveys and analysed. Results showed that 40% of households used Self-supply systems taking water from springs and brooks. Thermotolerant Coliforms were below 50 CFU/100 ml, both in dry and rainy season, and between 5 to 7% of samples achieved the WHO standard. These results suggest that Self-supply has potential to offer safe drinking water, provided improvements on source protection and institutional support. Therefore, Self-supply could contribute to address “unfinished business”, including ensuring access for the hardest-to-reach people, as stated in the post-2015 development agenda.</p>

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Source and mobilization mechanism of arsenic contamination in Manipur, Northeast India

10.5194/egusphere-egu2020-1055 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Chandra Shekhar Azad Kashyap ◽

Swati Singh

Keyword(s):

Drinking Water ◽

Rural Areas ◽

Agricultural Land ◽

Northeast India ◽

World Health ◽

Arsenic Content ◽

Agricultural Field ◽

Health Organization ◽

Paddy Crop ◽

Waterlogging Condition

<p>India is one of the fastest economic growing and second-largest country by population. More than 75% people are living in rural areas and engage with agricultural activities for livelihood. A significant portion of the revenue comes from agriculture which cause ignorance in follow the guideline to get more yield. The supply of good quality food and drinking water are the necessity for economic and social health welfare of urban and rural population. In this study, we have observed that the groundwater quality is being degrading due to improper implementation of the rules and regulation. Twenty three groundwater sample were analyze for arsenic and trace elements contamination. The arsenic content in groundwater ranging from 10 to 780 &#181;g/L, which is far above the levels for drinking water standards prescribed by World Health Organization (WHO). For identify the provable source of the contamination, four soil sample were analyzed and observed arsenic content ranging from 110 to 190 mg/kg. Rice is the staple food and ultimately cultivating the paddy crop on more over 80% of the agricultural land. The Paddy crop requires a large amount of water, ultimately maintain the waterlogging condition in the agricultural field. This waterlogging condition is providing a long time to get dissolution of the arsenic bearing minerals present in the soil. This study concluded that the traditional practicing of continuous growing paddy crop in the same field leading to groundwater contamination. The crops cycling could be a better option for reducing the contamination at a local scale.</p>

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Drinking water quality and human dimensions of cholera patients to inform evidence-based prevention investment in Karonga District, Malawi

Water Science & Technology Water Supply ◽

10.2166/ws.2019.086 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 19 (7) ◽

pp. 2079-2087

Author(s):

Prince Kaponda ◽

Suresh Muthukrishnan ◽

Rory Barber ◽

Rochelle H. Holm

Keyword(s):

Drinking Water ◽

Water Source ◽

Human Dimensions ◽

Sub Saharan Africa ◽

World Health ◽

Drinking Water Source ◽

Thermotolerant Coliforms ◽

Sub Saharan ◽

Health Organization ◽

The Cost

Abstract Cholera remains a problem in sub-Saharan Africa, especially in Malawi. Our aim was to investigate drinking water source quality compared with water treatment, risk perception and cholera knowledge for patients who had reported to a health center for treatment in the 2017–2018 outbreak in Karonga District, Malawi. The study analyzed 120 drinking water samples linked to 236 cholera patients. Nearly 82% of the samples met the national criteria for thermotolerant coliforms of 50 cfu/100 ml, while 50% met the more stringent World Health Organization criteria of 0 cfu/100 ml. In terms of the human dimensions, 68% of survey respondents reported that they treated their water, while knowledge of prevention, transmission and treatment of cholera was also generally high. However, of the 32 patients whose drinking water sources had thermotolerant coliforms of 200+ cfu/100 ml, seven reported they felt a low or no personal risk for contracting cholera in the future and their community was extremely well prepared for another outbreak. The cost of a reactive response to cholera outbreaks puts a burden on Malawi, providing an opportunity for investment in innovative and localized preventive strategies to control and eliminate the risk of cholera while acknowledging social and cultural norms.

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INCREASED DEMANDS FOR NATURAL IMMUNO- BOOSTERS IN SELECTED TOURISM AREAS

10.52370/tisc21366ml ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Milica Luković ◽

◽

Jovan Nićiforović ◽

Keyword(s):

Rural Areas ◽

Local Environment ◽

World Health ◽

Wild Edible Plants ◽

Potential Contribution ◽

Edible Plants ◽

High Concentration ◽

The World ◽

The Republic ◽

Health Organization

Rural areas have been facing distinctive challenges during the COVID-19 pandemic. As in other parts of the world, in the Republic of Serbia noticed movement of people from places with high concentration of settlements, like cities, into less densely populated communities. Searching for rural, natural, wild areas far away from cities, tourists made different pressures on local environment (sound, litter, pressure on natural resources, pollution) but also increased demands for healthier way of living in accordance with World Health Organization recommendation during the Covid 19 period. Besides a clear environment, they would like to enjoy locally produced food and wild edible plants as a source of minerals, vitamins and other functional substances for strengthening immunity. Using standard botanical questionnaire, the research was conducted in selected rural areas with the aim to create a list of the most wanted wild edible plants by tourists and to overview their potential contribution to immune system strengthening in the COVID-19 pandemic period.

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Starea resurselor de apa din satul Pogânesti raionul Hâncesti (studiu de caz)

Impactul antropic asupra calitatii mediului ◽

10.53380/9789975330800.20 ◽

2019 ◽

Author(s):

Elena Mosanu ◽

◽

Maria Sandu ◽

Anatolie Tarita ◽

Marina Beiu ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Drinking Water ◽

Surface Water ◽

Rural Areas ◽

Nitrate Concentration ◽

Water Hardness ◽

Total Water ◽

Domestic Waste ◽

Class V ◽

The Republic

In the Republic of Moldova, 57,1% of the population are live in rural areas [23]. Wells and springs in rural areas serve as the main sources of drinking water. Thus, the study carried out in the Poganesti village (Hancesti district) has shown that the main pollution sources in the locality are, especially animal and domestic waste, that have great impact under the quality of drinking water. The study has showed that 55% of the wells, as well as the surface water (small river from the locality) are polluted with nitrogen compounds. Mineralization and total water hardness of the studied wells exceed 4 -7 times sanitary standards norms and, at the same time surface water corresponds to class V of quality after hardness and nitrate concentration index.

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Toxic Levels of Some Heavy Metals in Drinking Network Surface Water of Damietta Governorate, Egypt

10.5194/dwes-2016-2 ◽

2016 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

M. S. M. EL-Bady

Keyword(s):

Water Pollution ◽

Heavy Metals ◽

Drinking Water ◽

Surface Water ◽

World Health Organization ◽

World Health ◽

Permissible Limits ◽

Health Organization

Abstract. In this paper, the heavy metals of the surface drinking water of Damietta governorate were evaluated. Damietta district, Farascore City, EL-Zarka City and Kafr Saad City are the main locations of drinking water pollution. The villages of the Damietta governorate have concentration values less than the permissible limits of World Health Organization (WHO) and Egyptian Ministry Health (EMH).

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Reducing the burden of rural water supply through greywater reuse: a case study from northern Malawi

Water Science & Technology Water Supply ◽

10.2166/ws.2017.004 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 17 (4) ◽

pp. 1088-1096 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Evan Newcomer ◽

Courtney Boyd ◽

Laban Nyirenda ◽

Emmanuel Opong ◽

Shannon Marquez ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Rural Areas ◽

Geographic Location ◽

Sub Saharan Africa ◽

World Health ◽

E Coli ◽

Colony Forming Units ◽

Sub Saharan ◽

Health Organization ◽

Greywater Reuse

Greywater reuse has potential for non-potable applications that conserve freshwater resources in water-stressed areas especially in sub-Saharan Africa. The feasibility of reusing greywater for domestic activities in a rural area of Malawi, Africa, was evaluated from microbiological and public acceptance perspectives. Median Escherichia coli concentrations for eight domestic greywater sources (handwashing, laundry, runoff from a tap apron, bathing, cleaning a home/kitchen, cleaning a water collection container, washing plates and soaking vegetables) ranged from 100 to >20,000 colony forming units (cfu)/100 ml. Twenty-four of 47 greywater samples tested (51%) met the World Health Organization guideline for unrestricted use of greywater for irrigation. Pertinently, 80% (4/5) and 60% (3/5) of greywater samples from handwashing stations and bathing had E. coli less than the WHO guideline. Users reported greatest acceptance of reusing greywater for growing food and washing clothes, especially when the greywater source was bathing. Acceptance was closely tied to a household's economic standing, geographic location, and first-hand knowledge of reusing greywater. Greywater reuse practices in rural areas, especially targeting bathing water as suitable from bacteriological and user perception criteria, can help mitigate the impacts of water stress in sub-Saharan Africa.

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Body mass index and peripheral arterial disease, a “U-shaped” relationship in elderly African population – the EPIDEMCA study

VASA ◽

10.1024/0301-1526/a000825 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 49 (1) ◽

pp. 50-56

Author(s):

Ileana Desormais ◽

Victor Aboyans ◽

Maëlenn Guerchet ◽

Bébène Ndamba-Bandzouzi ◽

Pascal Mbelesso ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Rural Areas ◽

Ankle Brachial Index ◽

Central Africa ◽

Arterial Disease ◽

Normal Weight ◽

Biological Data ◽

World Health ◽

The Republic ◽

Health Organization ◽

Peripheral Arterial

Summary: Background: There is no study available concerning specifically the role of underweight in PAD prevalence. Patients and methods: Individuals ≥ 65 years living in urban and rural areas of two countries in Central Africa (Central African Republic and the Republic of Congo) were invited. Demographic, clinical and biological data were collected, and ankle-brachial index measured. BMI was calculated as weight/height2 and participants were categorized according to the World Health Organization as with underweight (< 18.5 kg/m2), normal weight (18.5–24.9 kg/m2), overweight (25–29.9 kg/m2), and obese (≥ 30 kg/m2). Results: Among the 1815 participants (age 73.0 years, 61.8 % females), the prevalence of underweight was 34.1 %, higher in subjects with PAD than in PAD free subjects (37.1 % vs. 33.5 %, p = 0.0333). The overall prevalence of PAD was 14.3 %. Underweight and obesity were still significantly associated with PAD after adjustment to all potential confounding factors (OR: 2.09, p = 0.0009 respectively OR: 1.90, p = 0.0336) while overweight was no more significantly associated with PAD after multivariate analysis. Conclusions: While obesity is a well-known PAD associated marker, low BMI provides novel independent and incremental information on African subject’s susceptibility to present PAD, suggesting a “U-shaped” relationship between BMI and PAD in this population.

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