scholarly journals Decreased energy availability during training overload is associated with non-functional overreaching and suppressed ovarian function in female runners

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Karine Schaal ◽  
Marta D VanLoan ◽  
Christophe Hausswirth ◽  
Gretchen A Casazza
Keyword(s):  
Energy Intake ◽  
Female Athletes ◽  
Ovarian Function ◽  
Recovery Period ◽  
Poor Performance ◽  
Performance Outcomes ◽  
Energy Availability ◽  
Exercise Energy Expenditure ◽  
Ad Libitum ◽  
Plasma Leptin

Low energy availability (EA) suppresses many physiological processes, including ovarian function in female athletes. Low EA could also predispose athletes to develop a state of overreaching. This study compared the changes in ad libitum energy intake (EI), exercise energy expenditure (ExEE), and EA among runners completing a training overload (TO) phase. We tested the hypothesis that runners becoming overreached would show decreased EA, suppressed ovarian function and plasma leptin, compared to well-adapted (WA) runners. After 1 menstrual cycle (baseline), 16 eumenorrheic runners performed 4 weeks of TO followed by a 2-week recovery (131±3% and 63±6% of baseline running volume respectively). Seven-day ExEE, EI, running performance (RUNPERF) and plasma [leptin] were assessed for each phase. Salivary [estradiol] was measured daily. Urinary [luteinizing hormone] tests confirmed ovulation. Nine runners adapted positively to TO (WA,ΔRUNPERF: +4±2%); seven were non-functionally overreached (NFOR, ΔRUNPERF –9±2%) as RUNPERF remained suppressed after the recovery period. WA increased EI during TO, maintaining their baseline EA despite a large increase in ExEE (ΔEA=+1.9±1.3 kcal.kgFFM-1.d-1, P=0.17). By contrast, NFOR showed no change in EI, leading to decreased EA (ΔEA=-5.6±2.1 kcal.kgFFM-1.d-1, P=0.04). [Leptin]b, mid-cycle and luteal [estradiol]s decreased in NFOR only. Contrasting with WA, NFOR failed to maintain baseline EA during TO, resulting in poor performance outcomes and suppressed ovarian function.NCT02224976. NOVELTY BULLETS: -Runners adapting positively to training overload (TO) increased ad libitum energy intake, maintaining baseline EA and ovarian function through TO. -By contrast, NFOR runners failed to increase energy intake, showing suppressed EA and ovarian function during TO.

A Review of Nonpharmacological Strategies in the Treatment of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport

2020 ◽  
pp. 1-8
Author(s):  
Megan A. Kuikman ◽  
Margo Mountjoy ◽  
Trent Stellingwerff ◽  
Jamie F. Burr
Keyword(s):  
Energy Expenditure ◽  
Energy Intake ◽  
Female Athletes ◽  
Relative Energy ◽  
Performance Outcomes ◽  
Fat Free Mass ◽  
Energy Availability ◽  
Energy Deficiency ◽  
Exercise Energy Expenditure ◽  
And Performance

Relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S) can result in negative health and performance outcomes in both male and female athletes. The underlying etiology of RED-S is low energy availability (LEA), which occurs when there is insufficient dietary energy intake to meet exercise energy expenditure, corrected for fat-free mass, leaving inadequate energy available to ensure homeostasis and adequate energy turnover (optimize normal bodily functions to positively impact health), but also optimizing recovery, training adaptations, and performance. As such, treatment of RED-S involves increasing energy intake and/or decreasing exercise energy expenditure to address the underlying LEA. Clinically, however, the time burden and methodological errors associated with the quantification of energy intake, exercise energy expenditure, and fat-free mass to assess energy availability in free-living conditions make it difficult for the practitioner to implement in everyday practice. Furthermore, interpretation is complicated by the lack of validated energy availability thresholds, which can result in compromised health and performance outcomes in male and female athletes across various stages of maturation, ethnic races, and different types of sports. This narrative review focuses on pragmatic nonpharmacological strategies in the treatment of RED-S, featuring factors such as low carbohydrate availability, within-day prolonged periods of LEA, insufficient intake of bone-building nutrients, lack of mechanical bone stress, and/or psychogenic stress. This includes the implementation of strategies that address exacerbating factors of LEA, as well as novel treatment methods and underlying mechanisms of action, while highlighting areas of further research.

scholarly journals Energy Availability in Male and Female Elite Wheelchair Athletes over Seven Consecutive Training Days

Nutrients ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 12 (11) ◽  
pp. 3262 ◽  
Author(s):  
Thomas Egger ◽  
Joelle Leonie Flueck
Keyword(s):  
Energy Expenditure ◽  
Energy Intake ◽  
Female Athletes ◽  
Resting Energy Expenditure ◽  
Energy Availability ◽  
Male Athletes ◽  
Wheelchair Athletes ◽  
Energy Needs ◽  
Exercise Energy Expenditure ◽  
And Training

Background: Low energy availability (LEA) is a major problem as athletes often restrict their energy intake. It has been shown that LEA occurs often in female and endurance athletes and in athletes from weight-sensitive or aesthetic sports. The purpose of this study was to investigate energy availability (EA) in elite wheelchair athletes. Methods: Fourteen elite wheelchair athletes (8 males; 6 females) participated. Data were collected using a weighed seven-day food and training diary to estimate energy intake and exercise energy expenditure. Resting energy expenditure and body composition were measured, whereas energy balance (EB) was calculated. Results: Measured over 7 days, EA was significantly different (36.1 ± 6.7 kcal kg−1 FFM day−1) in male compared to female (25.1 ± 7.1 kcal kg−1 FFM day−1) athletes (p < 0.001). From all analyzed days, LEA occurred in 73% of the days in female athletes and in 30% of the days in male athletes. EB was positive in male athletes (+169.1 ± 304.5 kcal) and negative (−288.9 ± 304.8 kcal) in female athletes. Conclusions: A higher prevalence of LEA was found in female compared to male athletes. A higher energy intake would be recommended to meet energy needs and to maximize training adaptation.

scholarly journals Plasma leptin in female athletes: relationship with body fat, reproductive, nutritional, and endocrine factors

2000 ◽  
Vol 88 (6) ◽  
pp. 2037-2044 ◽  
Author(s):  
Farah S. L. Thong ◽  
Cyndy McLean ◽  
Terry E. Graham
Keyword(s):  
Energy Expenditure ◽  
Energy Intake ◽  
Sex Hormones ◽  
Female Athletes ◽  
Caloric Intake ◽  
Reproductive Function ◽  
Reproductive Axis ◽  
Exercise Energy Expenditure ◽  
Metabolic Signal ◽  
Plasma Leptin

The relationship of leptin to thyroid and sex hormones, insulin, energy intake, exercise energy expenditure, and reproductive function was assessed in 39 female athletes. They comprised elite athletes who were either amenorrheic (EAA; n = 5) or cyclic (ECA; n = 8) and recreationally active women who were either cyclic (RCA; n= 13) or taking oral contraceptives (ROC; n = 13). Leptin was significantly lower in EAA (1.7 ± 0.2 ng/ml) than in ECA (2.9 ± 0.3 ng/ml), RCA (5.8 ± 0.9 ng/ml), and ROC (7.4 ± 1.3 ng/ml). Hypoleptinemia in EAA was paralleled by reductions ( P < 0.05) in caloric intake, insulin, estradiol, and thyroid hormones. Leptin increased by 40–46% ( P < 0.05) in the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle in RCA and ECA. Plasma leptin was similar in the placebo and active pill phases in ROC despite a significant increase in ethinylestradiol. Leptin correlated ( P < 0.05) with triiodothyronine and insulin but not with estrogen, energy intake, or exercise energy expenditure. These data suggest that in female athletes 1) leptin may be a metabolic signal that provides a link between adipose tissue, energy availability, and the reproductive axis and 2) sex hormones do not directly regulate leptin secretion.

scholarly journals Fluid, energy, and nutrient recovery via ad libitum intake of different commercial beverages and food in female athletes

2019 ◽  
Vol 44 (1) ◽  
pp. 37-46 ◽  
Author(s):  
Danielle McCartney ◽  
Christopher Irwin ◽  
Gregory R. Cox ◽  
Ben Desbrow
Keyword(s):  
Oxygen Uptake ◽  
Maximal Oxygen Uptake ◽  
Urine Output ◽  
Female Athletes ◽  
Recovery Period ◽  
Nutrient Recovery ◽  
Total Water ◽  
Sports Drink ◽  
Food And Beverage ◽  
Ad Libitum

This study investigated the effect of consuming different commercial beverages with food ad libitum after exercise on fluid, energy, and nutrient recovery in trained females. On 4 separate occasions, 8 females (body mass (BM): 61.8 ± 10.7 kg; maximal oxygen uptake: 46.3 ± 7.5 mL·kg−1·min−1) lost 2.0% ± 0.3% BM cycling at ∼75% maximal oxygen uptake before completing a 4-h recovery period with ad libitum access to 1 of 4 beverages: Water, Powerade (Sports Drink), Up & Go Reduced Sugar (Lower Sugar (LS)-MILK) or Up & Go Energize (Higher Protein (HP)-MILK). Participants also had two 15-min opportunities to access food within the first 2 h of the recovery period. Beverage intake, total water/nutrient intake, and indicators of fluid recovery (BM, urine output, plasma osmolality), gastrointestinal tolerance and palatability were assessed periodically. While total water intake (from food and beverage) (Water: 1918 ± 580 g; Sports Drink: 1809 ± 338 g; LS-MILK: 1458 ± 431 g; HP-MILK: 1523 ± 472 g; p = 0.010) and total urine output (Water: 566 ± 314 g; Sports Drink: 459 ± 290 g; LS-MILK: 220 ± 53 g; HP-MILK: 230 ± 117 g; p = 0.009) differed significantly by beverage, the quantity of ingested water retained was similar across treatments (Water: 1352 ± 462 g; Sports Drink: 1349 ± 407 g; LS-MILK: 1238 ± 400 g; HP-MILK: 1293 ± 453 g; p = 0.691). Total energy intake (from food and beverage) increased in proportion to the energy density of the beverage (Water: 4129 ± 1080 kJ; Sports Drink: 5167 ± 643 kJ; LS-MILK: 6019 ± 1925 kJ; HP-MILK: 7096 ± 2058 kJ; p = 0.014). When consumed voluntarily and with food, different beverages promote similar levels of fluid recovery, but alter energy/nutrient intakes. Providing access to food and understanding the longer-term dietary goals of female athletes are important considerations when recommending a recovery beverage.

Energy Availability of Female Varsity Volleyball Players

2013 ◽  
Vol 23 (1) ◽  
pp. 24-30 ◽  
Author(s):  
Sarah J. Woodruff ◽  
Renee D. Meloche
Keyword(s):  
Energy Expenditure ◽  
High Performance ◽  
Female Athletes ◽  
Fat Free Mass ◽  
Medium Size ◽  
Energy Availability ◽  
Air Displacement Plethysmography ◽  
Bod Pod ◽  
Total Daily Energy Expenditure ◽  
Exercise Energy Expenditure

Female athletes should aim to achieve energy balance to maintain health and have a high performance output. The purpose of this study was to investigate energy availability (EA) among members of a medium-size Canadian Interuniversity Sport women’s volleyball team and to describe exercise energy expenditure (ExEE) during practices, game warm-ups, and games. Total daily energy expenditure was assessed over 7 d using the Bodymedia Sensewear Mini armband, while energy intake (EI) was measured with dietary food logs. Body composition was assessed using air-displacement plethysmography (Bod Pod). Energy availability was calculated using the equation EA = (EIkcal – ExEEkcal)/kg fat-free mass (FFM). Participants consumed 3,435 (± 1,172) kcal/day and expended 3479 (± 604) kcal/day. Mean EA was 42.5 kcal · kg FFM-1 · d-1 across all 7 d, and 2 participants fell below the 30-kcal · kg FFM-1 · d-1 threshold. Furthermore, participants expended 511 (± 216), 402 (± 50), and 848 (± 155) kcal during practices, game warm-ups, and games, respectively. Overall, the participants were relatively weight stable and should be encouraged to continue fueling their exercise and high ExEE needs with appropriate nutritional strategies.

scholarly journals Knowledge of Low Energy Availability, Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport and the Female Athlete Triad Amongst Female Athletes and Active Individuals

Proceedings ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 37 (1) ◽  
pp. 24
Author(s):  
Winter ◽  
Black ◽  
Brown
Keyword(s):  
Female Athlete ◽  
Female Athletes ◽  
Relative Energy ◽  
Low Energy ◽  
Energy Availability ◽  
Female Athlete Triad ◽  
Energy Deficiency ◽  
Exercise Energy Expenditure ◽  
Low Energy Availability ◽  
Normal Physiological Function

Background: Low Energy Availability (LEA), Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S) and the Female Athlete Triad (Triad) are generally related to the negative health effects of consuming insufficient energy to meet exercise energy expenditure and maintain normal physiological function. [...]

Case Study: Impact of Inter- and Intra-Day Energy Parameters on Bone Health, Menstrual Function, and Hormones in an Elite Junior Female Triathlete

2016 ◽  
Vol 26 (4) ◽  
pp. 363-369 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jason D. Vescovi ◽  
Jaci L. VanHeest
Keyword(s):  
Bone Mineral Density ◽  
Energy Expenditure ◽  
Energy Intake ◽  
Bone Mineral ◽  
Bone Health ◽  
Energy Availability ◽  
Mineral Density ◽  
Exercise Energy Expenditure ◽  
Health Related

This observational case study examined the association of inter- and intraday energy intake and exercise energy expenditure with bone health, menstrual status and hematological factors in a female triathlete. The study spanned 7 months whereby energy intake and exercise energy expenditure were monitored three times (13 d); 16 blood samples were taken, urinary hormones were assessed for 3 months, and bone mineral density was measured twice. Energy availability tended to be sustained below 30 kcal/kg FFM/d and intraday energy intake patterns were often “back-loaded” with approximately 46% of energy consumed after 6 p.m. Most triiodothyronine values were low (1.1–1.2nmol/L) and supportive of reduced energy availability. The athlete had suppressed estradiol (105.1 ± 71.7pmol/L) and progesterone (1.79 ±1.19nmol/L) concentrations as well as urinary sex-steroid metabolites during the entire monitoring period. Lumbar spine (L1-L4) bone mineral density was low (age-matched Z-score −1.4 to −1.5). Despite these health related maladies the athlete was able to perform typical weekly training loads (swim: 30–40 km, bike: 120–300 km, run 45–70 km) and was competitive as indicated by her continued improvement in ITU World Ranking during and beyond the assessment period. There is a delicate balance between health and performance that can become blurred especially for endurance athletes. Education (athletes, coaches, parents) and continued monitoring of specific indicators will enable evidence-based recommendations to be provided and help reduced the risk of health related issues while maximizing performance gains. Future research needs to longitudinally examine how performance on standardized tests in each discipline (e.g., 800-m swim, 20-km time trial, 5-km run) is impacted when aspects of the female athlete triad are present.

scholarly journals Differential effects of dairy snacks on appetite, but not overall energy intake

2012 ◽  
Vol 108 (12) ◽  
pp. 2274-2285 ◽  
Author(s):  
Anestis Dougkas ◽  
Anne M. Minihane ◽  
D. Ian Givens ◽  
Christopher K. Reynolds ◽  
Parveen Yaqoob
Keyword(s):  
Amino Acids ◽  
Body Weight ◽  
Energy Intake ◽  
Dairy Products ◽  
Suppressive Effect ◽  
Excess Body Weight ◽  
Water Control ◽  
Dietary Regulation ◽  
The Poor ◽  
Ad Libitum

Dietary regulation of appetite may contribute to the prevention and management of excess body weight. The present study examined the effect of consumption of individual dairy products as snacks on appetite and subsequent ad libitum lunch energy intake. In a randomised cross-over trial, forty overweight men (age 32 (sd 9) years; BMI 27 (sd 2) kg/m2) attended four sessions 1 week apart and received three isoenergetic (841 kJ) and isovolumetric (410 ml) servings of dairy snacks or water (control) 120 min after breakfast. Appetite profile was determined throughout the morning and ad libitum energy intake was assessed 90 min after the intake of snacks. Concentrations of amino acids, glucose, insulin, ghrelin and peptide tyrosine tyrosine were measured at baseline (0 min) and 80 min after the intake of snacks. Although the results showed that yogurt had the greatest suppressive effect on appetite, this could be confounded by the poor sensory ratings of yogurt. Hunger rating was 8, 10 and 24 % (P < 0·001) lower after the intake of yogurt than cheese, milk and water, respectively. Energy intake was 11, 9 and 12 % (P < 0·02) lower after the intake of yogurt, cheese and milk, respectively, compared with water (4312 (se 226) kJ). Although there was no difference in the postprandial responses of hormones, alanine and isoleucine concentrations were higher after the intake of yogurt than cheese and milk (P < 0·05). In conclusion, all dairy snacks reduced appetite and lunch intake compared with water. Yogurt had the greatest effect on suppressing subjective appetite ratings, but did not affect subsequent food intake compared with milk or cheese.

scholarly journals Does Increased Exercise or Physical Activity Alter Ad-Libitum Daily Energy Intake or Macronutrient Composition in Healthy Adults? A Systematic Review

PLoS ONE ◽  
2014 ◽  
Vol 9 (1) ◽  
pp. e83498 ◽  
Author(s):  
Joseph E. Donnelly ◽  
Stephen D. Herrmann ◽  
Kate Lambourne ◽  
Amanda N. Szabo ◽  
Jeffery J. Honas ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Physical Activity ◽  
Systematic Review ◽  
Energy Intake ◽  
Healthy Adults ◽  
Daily Energy Intake ◽  
Macronutrient Composition ◽  
Daily Energy ◽  
Ad Libitum
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