Water-Saving Efficiency and Inequality of Virtual Water Trade in China

Virtual water trade is widely considered as a potential method to solve local water shortage and unequal distribution. However, limited research investigated water-saving efficiency and water inequality of inter-provincial virtual water trade. In this study, we sought to explore this issue within China based on the 2015 input-output data. A multi-regional input-output model and a modified input-output model were used to estimate the virtual water trade and its impact on water-saving and water inequality. Our results suggest that: (1) The total virtual water flow across the country is 200.03 × 109 m3, which accounts for 32.77% of water withdrawal. The agriculture sector contributes the highest proportion (73.99%) to virtual water flow. (2) Virtual water trade could decrease water withdrawal by 446.08 × 109 m3 compared with withdrawal under no-trade situation at a national level, and 22 provinces could gain benefits through inter-provincial trade with a positive water-saving efficiency index. (3) Virtual water trade also causes water inequality, which exacerbates water scarcity of exported provinces, especially in northwest provinces. (4) There is a conflict between water conservation and water inequality, but different provinces show significant heterogeneity.

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An estimation of global virtual water flow and sources of water withdrawal for major crops and livestock products using a global hydrological model

Journal of Hydrology ◽

10.1016/j.jhydrol.2009.09.028 ◽

2010 ◽

Vol 384 (3-4) ◽

pp. 232-244 ◽

Cited By ~ 222

Author(s):

Naota Hanasaki ◽

Toshiyuki Inuzuka ◽

Shinjiro Kanae ◽

Taikan Oki

Keyword(s):

Water Flow ◽

Hydrological Model ◽

Virtual Water ◽

Water Withdrawal ◽

Virtual Water Flow ◽

Livestock Products

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Virtual Water Trade in the Service Sector: China’s Inbound Tourism as a Case Study

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health ◽

10.3390/ijerph18041769 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 18 (4) ◽

pp. 1769

Author(s):

Yu Zhang ◽

Jin-he Zhang ◽

Qing Tian

Keyword(s):

Density Estimation ◽

Water Flow ◽

Kernel Density Estimation ◽

Service Sector ◽

Water Footprint ◽

Kernel Density ◽

Virtual Water ◽

Virtual Water Trade ◽

Inbound Tourism ◽

Virtual Water Flow

Research on virtual water and the water footprint is mainly focused on agriculture and industry, and less so on the service sector. The trade in products generates virtual water flow, as does the flow of people. The flow of international tourists will inevitably lead to the transfer and exchange of water resources embedded in the virtual form. This study takes China’s inbound tourism flow as the research object, from the perspective of the water footprint, in order to explore virtual water “exports” to the world. Based on kernel density estimation and ArcGIS spatial analysis, spatial-temporal evolution and structural difference were investigated. Virtual water “exports” showed an increasing trend. The kernel density estimation curves basically exhibited a “single peak” feature which indicated that virtual water “exports” from tourism were not significantly polarized in China. In terms of spatial evolution, this varied greatly at the provincial and regional level and Guangdong was always in the high value area. The south displayed greater values than the north, but this difference in provinces narrowed over the years. The water footprint of food was the largest, more specifically, the green component of this water footprint. Promoting a reasonable diet, reducing food waste, improving agricultural production technology, reducing the frequency of changing hotel supplies, and encouraging the use of new energy helped to reduce the water footprint. Virtual water trade in the service sector provides a new idea for helping to mitigate the global water crisis, in addition to virtual water flow for agricultural products.

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Analysis of Virtual Water Trade Flow and Driving Factors in the European Union

Water ◽

10.3390/w13131771 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 13 (13) ◽

pp. 1771

Author(s):

Tianbo Fu ◽

Changxin Xu ◽

Xinyi Huang

Keyword(s):

European Union ◽

United Kingdom ◽

Water Flow ◽

Virtual Water ◽

The European Union ◽

Virtual Water Trade ◽

Water Flows ◽

The United Kingdom ◽

Virtual Water Flow ◽

Water Intensity

The inefficient application of water resources has become an urgent problem restricting the world’s sustainable development. Virtual Water Trade opens a new perspective on improving water resource utilization efficiency. Based on a multi-regional input–output model and the logarithmic mean Divisia index, the virtual water flows between 2000–2014 in 43 countries and regions have been evaluated, and the driving forces of changes in virtual water flows for the European Union were revealed. During the study period, the total amount of virtual water flow continued to increase. The United Kingdom is a net virtual water importer that depends on the European Union significantly. There was a large amount of virtual water flow from the European Union to the United States during 2000–2012. However, China gradually seized the share of virtual water from European Union exports after 2012. Economic effects and virtual water intensity effects are the most significant drivers of virtual water flows. The difference is that the economic effect positively drives virtual water flows, while the virtual water intensity effect negatively influences. The results reveal the nature of the United Kingdom in the virtual water trade and can provide post-Brexit recommendations.

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Estimation of the virtual water trade between two Spanish regions: Castilla-la Mancha and Murcia

Water Science & Technology Water Supply ◽

10.2166/ws.2010.477 ◽

2010 ◽

Vol 10 (5) ◽

pp. 831-840 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Ángel De Miguel ◽

Eloy García ◽

Irene De Buestamante

Keyword(s):

Water Flow ◽

Food Processing ◽

Virtual Water ◽

Water Transfer ◽

Water Efficiency ◽

International Context ◽

Water Flows ◽

Spanish Regions ◽

La Mancha ◽

Virtual Water Flow

Virtual water is defined as the water needed to produce a product. We can use virtual water flow calculations to estimate the water efficiency of a country, as well as its economic dependence on water resources. Former studies on this area have focused on quantifying the virtual water flows between countries, in an international context. In this study we reduce the action framework to regions within a country, determining the virtual water balance between two Spanish regions: Castilla-La Mancha and Murcia. In 2004, Castilla-La Mancha exported to Murcia 2,453,442 tons of commercial products, from which 1,191,628 tons were agricultural goods. In terms of virtual water, it means 1,365 hm3, including food-processing, and industrial products. It is necessary to add 350 hm3 to the result, because of the water transfer (Tajo-Segura transfer) between the rivers basins of these regions, so the final virtual water number, in 2004, was 1,715 hm3. The other way round, Murcia exported in 2004 2,069,000 tons of products, from which 490,351 tons were agricultural goods. That supposes 712 hm3 of virtual water. Virtual water flow is unbalanced and displaced towards Murcia with a difference of 1,003 hm3.

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Evaluating Cryospheric Water Withdrawal and Virtual Water Flows in Tarim River Basin of China: An Input–Output Analysis

Sustainability ◽

10.3390/su13147589 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 13 (14) ◽

pp. 7589

Author(s):

Yang Yang ◽

Shiwei Liu ◽

Cunde Xiao ◽

Cuiyang Feng ◽

Chenyu Li

Keyword(s):

Water Resources ◽

River Basin ◽

Socioeconomic Development ◽

Virtual Water ◽

Water Withdrawal ◽

Tarim River ◽

Tarim River Basin ◽

Input Output ◽

Output Analysis ◽

Water Flows

In Tarim River Basin (TRB), the retreat of glacier and snow cover reduction due to climate warming threatens the regional economy of downstream basins that critically depends on meltwater. However, the quantitative evaluation of its impact on multiple sectors of the socioeconomic system is incomplete. Based on compiled regional input–output table of the year 2012, this study developed a method to analyze the relationships between economic activities and related meltwater withdrawal, as well as sectoral transfer. The results show that the direct meltwater withdrawal intensity (DMWI) of agriculture was much higher than other sectors, reaching 2348.02 m3/10,000 CNY. Except for A01 (agriculture) and A02 (mining and washing of coal), the embodied meltwater withdrawal (EMW) driven by the final demand of other sectors was greater than direct meltwater withdrawal, and all sectors required inflows of virtual water (72.45 × 108 m3, accounting for 29% of total supply from cryospheric water resources) for their production processes in 2012. For sectors with high DMWI, improving water-use efficiency is an effective way to reduce water withdrawal. To some extent, the unbalanced supply of cryospheric water resources due to geographical segregation can be regulated by virtual water flows from water-saving to water-intensive sectors. Such decisions can affect the balance between socioeconomic development and environment conservation for long-term sustainability.

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Virtual Water Trade in the Yellow River Economic Belt: A Multi-Regional Input-Output Model

Water ◽

10.3390/w13060748 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 13 (6) ◽

pp. 748

Author(s):

Ming Li ◽

Qingsong Tian ◽

Yan Yu ◽

Yueyan Xu ◽

Chongguang Li

Keyword(s):

Water Resources ◽

Water Use ◽

Inner Mongolia ◽

Yellow River ◽

Cumulative Risk ◽

Virtual Water ◽

Hot Water ◽

The Yellow River ◽

Input Output ◽

Virtual Water Trade

The sustainable and efficient use of water resources has gained wide social concern, and the key point is to investigate the virtual water trade of the water-scarcity region and optimize water resources allocation. In this paper, we apply a multi-regional input-output model to analyze patterns and the spillover risks of the interprovincial virtual water trade in the Yellow River Economic Belt, China. The results show that: (1) The agriculture and supply sector as well as electricity and hot water production own the largest total water use coefficient, being high-risk water use sectors in the Yellow River Economic Belt. These two sectors also play a major role in the inflow and outflow of virtual water; (2) The overall situation of the Yellow River Economic Belt is virtual water inflow, but the pattern of virtual water trade between eastern and western provinces is quite different. Shandong, Henan, Shaanxi, and Inner Mongolia belong to the virtual water net inflow area, while the virtual water net outflow regions are concentrated in Shanxi, Gansu, Xinjiang, Ningxia, and Qinghai; (3) Due to higher water resource stress, Shandong and Shanxi suffer a higher cumulative risk through virtual water trade. Also, Shandong, Henan, and Inner Mongolia have a higher spillover risk to other provinces in the Yellow River Economic Belt.

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Inequalities in the networks of virtual water flow

Eos ◽

10.1029/2012eo320001 ◽

2012 ◽

Vol 93 (32) ◽

pp. 309-310 ◽

Cited By ~ 16

Author(s):

Joel Carr ◽

Paolo D'Odorico ◽

Francesco Laio ◽

Luca Ridolfi ◽

David Seekell

Keyword(s):

Water Flow ◽

Virtual Water ◽

Virtual Water Flow

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Analysis of intra-country virtual water trade strategy to alleviate water scarcity in Iran

Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions ◽

10.5194/hessd-7-2609-2010 ◽

2010 ◽

Vol 7 (2) ◽

pp. 2609-2649 ◽

Cited By ~ 6

Author(s):

M. Faramarzi ◽

H. Yang ◽

J. Mousavi ◽

R. Schulin ◽

C. R. Binder ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Water Scarcity ◽

Food Production ◽

Water Productivity ◽

National Level ◽

Virtual Water ◽

Mixed Integer ◽

Baseline Scenario ◽

Cropping Pattern ◽

Virtual Water Trade ◽

Cereal Production

Abstract. Increasing water scarcity has posed a major constraint to sustain food production in many parts of the world. To study the situation at the regional level, we took Iran as an example and analyzed how an intra-country "virtual water trade strategy" (VWTS) may help improve cereal production as well as alleviate the water scarcity problem. This strategy calls, in part, for the adjustment of the structure of cropping pattern (ASCP) and interregional food trade where crop yield and crop water productivity as well as local economic and social conditions are taken into account. We constructed a systematic framework to assess ASCP at the provincial level under various driving forces and constraints. A mixed-integer, multi-objective, linear optimization model was developed and solved by linear programming. Data from 1990–2004 were used to account for yearly fluctuations of water availability and food production. Five scenarios were designed aimed at maximizing the national cereal production while meeting certain levels of wheat self-sufficiency under various water and land constraints in individual provinces. The results show that under the baseline scenario, which assumes a continuation of the existing water use and food policy at the national level, some ASCP scenarios could produce more wheat with less water. Based on different scenarios in ASCP, we calculated that 31% to 100% of the total wheat shortage in the deficit provinces could be supplied by the wheat surplus provinces. As a result, wheat deficit provinces would receive 3.5 billion m3 to 5.5 billion m3 of virtual water by importing wheat from surplus provinces.

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