Cognitive Development, Intelligence, and Developmental Trajectories

After almost 60 years of research, how children come to understand death and what factors contribute to this development continue to generate interest. This paper critically reviews published research since the early 1980s, with a specific focus on the development of components of the death concept in children. Studies are reviewed with respect to the effects of age, cognitive development, type of object inquired about, culture and SES, experience with death, and emotional factors on the development of children's understanding of death. While these studies indicate that by 10 years of age most children have mastered the components of irreversibility, universality, non-functionality, personal mortality, and causality, acquisition of individual components appears to be differentially affected by several factors. Cognitive development, verbal ability, and cultural and religious experiences appear to influence the acquisition of abstract components such as universality. Direct experience appears to affect the acquisition of physically-based components, such as non-functionality and irreversibility. In addition, the components appear to have different developmental trajectories. Emotional factors appear to play a significant role in how children respond to questions about death and might be highly influential in the development of their understanding of death. Directions for future research are presented with attention to theoretical issues and the ongoing methodological problems in the study of children's conceptions of death.

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Nurturing Environments and Nutrient-Rich Diets May Improve Cognitive Development: Analysis of Cognitive Trajectories from Six to Sixty Months from the MAL-ED Study (OR10-01-19)

Current Developments in Nutrition ◽

10.1093/cdn/nzz034.or10-01-19 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 3 (Supplement_1) ◽

Author(s):

Benjamin McCormick ◽

Laura Caulfield ◽

Stephanie Richard ◽

Laura Pendergast ◽

Laura Murray-Kolb ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Discriminant Analysis ◽

Cognitive Development ◽

Nutrition Education ◽

Child Nutrition ◽

Infant Development ◽

Latent Class ◽

Mixed Model ◽

Developmental Trajectories ◽

Analysis Model ◽

Middle Income

Abstract Objectives To identify clusters of cognitive developmental trajectories and associated differentiating factors of children aged 6 to 60 months old in 5 low to middle-income sites. Methods We followed 835 children and assessed anthropometry at enrolment (≤ 17 d old); bi-weekly illness data (0–24 and 60 mo); non-diarrheal and diarrheal stools (0–24 mo) analyzed for a panel of enteropathogens; quantitative complementary food intakes (9–24 and 60 mo); micronutrient status (Fe, Zn, Vit A; 7, 15, and 24 mo); quality of the child's home environment (6, 24, and 60 mo) and maternal reasoning ability and depressive symptoms via questionnaire. Child cognitive development was assessed by the Bayley Scales of Infant Development III (6, 15 and 24 mo) and Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (60 mo). Clusters of trajectories were identified using a latent class mixed model. Differences between clusters were described using discriminant analysis to rank the contribution of each variable using correlation-adjusted t-scores (CAT). Results Five clusters were identified. From 51 discriminatory factors, 10 had greatest descriptive power: HOME score at 60 mo (mean CAT2 ± SD: 34.6 ± 0.35), proportion of days ill from 0–24 mo (23.9 ± 0.18), years of maternal schooling (13.8 ± 0.23), mean nutrient densities of zinc (12.3 ± 0.07), protein (8.95 ± 0.09), vitamin B6 (8.2 ± 0.10), phytate (7.91 ± 0.05) and mean energy (7.82 ± 0.04) from complementary foods (9–24 mo), % days of exclusive breastfeeding (0–6 mo; 6.42 ± 0.10) and weight-for-age at enrolment (6.14 ± 0.17). The discriminant analysis model fit was statistically significant (Wilk's λ 0.54, P < 0.01). Conclusions Early life factors associated with higher scoring trajectories included stimulation and support for the child in their home, complementary feeding that typified greater diversity and animal-source foods, and maternal years of schooling. Influences associated with lower scoring trajectories included lower weight at enrolment and higher prevalence of illness. Policies promoting maternal and child nutrition, education and fostering a nurturing environment are likely to have greatest impact on child development. Funding Sources The MAL-ED study was supported by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, with grants to the Foundation for the NIH and NIH/FIC.

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Trajectories of child cognitive development during ages 0–3 in rural Western China: prevalence, risk factors and links to preschool-age cognition

BMC Pediatrics ◽

10.1186/s12887-021-02650-y ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 21 (1) ◽

Author(s):

Lei Wang ◽

Yifei Chen ◽

Sean Sylvia ◽

Sarah-Eve Dill ◽

Scott Rozelle

Keyword(s):

Cognitive Development ◽

Cognitive Skills ◽

Infant Development ◽

Developmental Trajectories ◽

Rural China ◽

Preschool Age ◽

Western China ◽

Rural Children ◽

Cognitive Delay ◽

Child Cognitive Development

Abstract Background Cognitive development after age three tends to be stable and can therefore predict cognitive skills in later childhood. However, there is evidence that cognitive development is less stable before age three. In rural China, research has found large shares of children under age three are developmentally delayed, yet little is known about the trajectories of cognitive development between 0 and 3 years of age or how developmental trajectories predict later cognitive skills. This study seeks to describe the trajectories of child cognitive development between the ages of 0–3 years and examine how different trajectories predict cognitive development at preschool age. Methods We collected three waves of longitudinal panel data from 1245 children in rural Western China. Child cognitive development was measured by the Bayley Scales of Infant Development when the child was 6–12 months and 22–30 months, and by the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Fourth Edition when the child was 49–65 months. We used the two measures of cognitive development before age three to determine the trajectories of child cognitive development. Results Of the children, 39% were never cognitively delayed; 13% were persistently delayed; 7% experienced improving cognitive development; and 41% experienced deteriorating development before age 3. Compared to children who had never experienced cognitive delay, children with persistent cognitive delay and those with deteriorating development before age 3 had significantly lower cognitive scores at preschool age. Children with improving development before age 3 showed similar levels of cognition at preschool age as children who had never experienced cognitive delay. Conclusions Large shares of children under age 3 in rural Western China show deteriorating cognitive development from infancy to toddlerhood, which predict lower levels of cognition at preschool age. Policymakers should invest in improving cognitive development before age 3 to prevent long-term poor cognition among China’s rural children.

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Promoting Early Child Development

Convergence Mental Health ◽

10.1093/med/9780197506271.003.0010 ◽

2021 ◽

pp. 123-136

Author(s):

Supriya Bhavnani ◽

Georgia Lockwood Estrin ◽

Debarati Mukherjee ◽

Vikram Patel

Keyword(s):

Cognitive Development ◽

Low Income ◽

Developmental Trajectories ◽

Scaling Up ◽

Longitudinal Assessment ◽

Ethical Considerations ◽

Developmental Potential ◽

The Life Course ◽

Mental And Physical Health

Current estimates suggest that over 200 million children are at risk of suboptimal cognitive development globally, with the majority living in low-income communities. This has profound implications for mental and physical health, learning attainment, and productivity throughout the life course. Supporting young children to reach their full developmental potential requires a multi-faceted approach across diverse sectors and disciplines. This chapter emphasizes convergence science as the foundation of implementing effective and scalable solutions that assess, promote, and protect developmental trajectories from an early age. The authors highlight how the use of such an approach, which spans disciplines and sectors, can overcome barriers to scaling up effective solutions, particularly in low resource settings, while also emphasizing key ethical considerations of developing and implementing technological innovations. They conclude by presenting a case study on developing acceptable, feasible, and valid scalable technological solutions to aid in the longitudinal assessment of cognitive development to achieve the vision of optimizing their developmental potential.

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Iron Status in Early Infancy Is Associated With Attentional Flexibility and Cognitive Achievement in Rural Gambia

Current Developments in Nutrition ◽

10.1093/cdn/nzab045_048 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 5 (Supplement_2) ◽

pp. 666-666

Author(s):

Sam McCann ◽

Ebrima Mbye ◽

Ebou Touray ◽

Muhammed Ceesay ◽

Lena Acolatse ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Cognitive Development ◽

Iron Deficiency ◽

Developmental Trajectories ◽

Iron Status ◽

Mixed Effects ◽

Developmental Trajectory ◽

Early Infancy ◽

Mixed Effects Models ◽

Ferritin Concentration ◽

Gates Foundation

Abstract Objectives To determine the relationship between iron status in early infancy (1–5 months) and longitudinal trajectories of cognitive development (5–18 months) in a cohort of infants from rural Gambia. Methods This study used data from the Brain Imaging for Global Health (BRIGHT) study, which recruited pregnant women (n = 223) and followed up mothers and their children to 18 months of age (n = 191). Infant blood samples collected at 1 and 5 months of age were analysed for soluble transferrin receptor (sTfR) and ferritin using a COBAS INTEGRA 400 (Roche). Cognitive development was measured at 5, 8, 12 and 18 months of age using the Mullen Scales of Early Learning (MSEL) and an eye tracking measure of attentional flexibility (disengagement time). For each outcome measure, mixed effects models of individual developmental trajectories from 5–18 months of age were developed. Each model had a different measure of iron status as the primary exposure (ferritin or sTfR at 1 or 5 months of age) and was adjusted for confounding factors. Results Prevalence of iron deficiency (ferritin < 12μg/L or < 30 μg/L if CRP > 5mg/L) increased from 0% to 29.5% between 1 and 5 months of age. In mixed effects models, a -1mg/L difference in sTfR (indicating better iron status) at 1 month of age was associated as with a 31.2ms difference in disengagement time (SE = 13.1, p = 0.017) at each time point from 5–18 months of age, but was not associated with MSEL developmental trajectory. A -1mg/L difference in sTfR at 5 months of age associated with a 0.6 point difference in MSEL score from 5–18 months of age (SE = 0.180, p = 0.001) and a 10.6ms difference in disengagement time (SE = 4.8, p = 0.028) across the same period. There was no relationship between ferritin concentration at 1 or 5 months and trajectories of either MSEL or disengagement time (all p > 0.05). Conclusions Infants under 6 months of age in rural Gambia are at risk of iron deficiency. Poor iron status in early infancy, measured by sTfR but not ferritin, is associated with both global cognition and a specific measure of attentional flexibility, from 5–18 months of age. Maintenance of adequate iron in infants up to 6 months of age may benefit the developing brain. Funding Sources Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and Medical Research Council (UK).

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Hurler Syndrome: II. Outcome of HLA-Genotypically Identical Sibling and HLA-Haploidentical Related Donor Bone Marrow Transplantation in Fifty-Four Children

Blood ◽

10.1182/blood.v91.7.2601 ◽

1998 ◽

Vol 91 (7) ◽

pp. 2601-2608 ◽

Cited By ~ 256

Author(s):

Charles Peters ◽

Elsa G. Shapiro ◽

James Anderson ◽

P. Jean Henslee-Downey ◽

Martin R. Klemperer ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Bone Marrow ◽

Enzyme Activity ◽

Bone Marrow Transplantation ◽

Cognitive Development ◽

Marrow Transplantation ◽

Developmental Trajectories ◽

Allogeneic Bone ◽

Hurler Syndrome ◽

Grade Ii ◽

Related Donor

Abstract Untreated patients with Hurler syndrome (MPSIH) experience progressive neurologic deterioration and early death. Allogeneic bone marrow transplantation (BMT) ameliorates or halts this course. The Storage Disease Collaborative Study Group was formed to evaluate the effectiveness and toxicity of BMT. Effectiveness was defined as engrafted survival with continuing cognitive development. Fifty-four patients deficient in leukocyte α-l-iduronidase enzyme activity (median age, 1.8 years; range, 0.4 to 7.9) received high-dose chemotherapy with or without irradiation and BMT from HLA-genotypically identical sibling (GIS) or HLA-haploidentical related (HIR) donors between September 16, 1983 and July 14, 1995; all children were included in this report. Thirty-nine of 54 patients (72%) engrafted following the first BMT. The probability of grade II to IV acute graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) at 100 days was 32% for GIS and 55% for HIR patients. The probability of extensive chronic GVHD was 0% for GIS and 24% for HIR patients. The actuarial probability of survival at 5 years was 64% for all patients, 75% for GIS patients, 53% for HIR patients, and 53% for patients with donor marrow engraftment. The baseline Mental Developmental Index (MDI) was examined both for children less than and greater than 24 months of age at BMT. Children transplanted before 24 months had a mean baseline MDI of 78, while those transplanted after 24 months had a mean baseline MDI of 63 (P = .0002). Both baseline and post-BMT neuropsychologic data were available for 26 of 30 engrafted survivors. Of 14 patients transplanted before 24 months of age, nine demonstrated developmental trajectories that were normal or somewhat slower than normal. In contrast, of 12 patients transplanted after 24 months of age, only three showed developmental trajectories that were normal or somewhat slower than normal (P = .01). For children with a baseline MDI greater than 70, there was a significant correlation between the MDI at follow-up study and leukocyte α-l-iduronidase enzyme activity (P = .02). Children were more likely to maintain normal cognitive development if they were fully engrafted following BMT from a donor with homozygous normal leukocyte α-l-iduronidase enzyme activity. Children who developed acute GVHD of grade II or worse had significantly poorer cognitive outcomes (P < .009). No difference in the post-BMT MDI was observed between patients whose preparative therapies did (n = 10; radiation dose, 300 to 1,400 cGy) or did not (n = 16) include radiation. We conclude that MPSIH patients, particularly those less than 24 months of age with a baseline MDI greater than 70, can achieve a favorable long-term outcome with continuing cognitive development and prolonged survival after successful BMT from a related donor with homozygous normal enzyme activity.

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The epidemiology of cognitive development

10.31234/osf.io/vckyh ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Ava Guez ◽

Hugo Peyre ◽

Camille Williams ◽

Ghislaine Labouret ◽

Franck Ramus

Keyword(s):

Cognitive Development ◽

Cognitive Abilities ◽

Observational Studies ◽

Developmental Psychology ◽

Developmental Trajectories ◽

Complex Interplay ◽

Genetic Predictors ◽

Fundamental Research ◽

Research Questions ◽

The Stability

The epidemiology of cognitive development is an approach essentially based on large observational studies, which examines individual differences in cognitive abilities throughout childhood and their determinants. Although different in terms of methodology and main interests from developmental psychology, cognitive epidemiology offers complementary viewpoints on cognitive development and addresses fundamental research questions of interest to developmental psychologists. The present paper depicts the contributions of the epidemiological approach to the field of cognitive development and highlights the methodological advances that have made such contributions possible. We discuss the stability and developmental trajectories of cognitive functions, their main predictors, the complex interplay between environmental and genetic predictors, and the relationships between the different domains of cognition from birth to adulthood.

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Infant Cognitive Development Trajectory and Middle Childhood and Adolescent Development Outcomes: A Chinese Birth Cohort Study (P11-144-19)

Current Developments in Nutrition ◽

10.1093/cdn/nzz048.p11-144-19 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 3 (Supplement_1) ◽

Author(s):

Zhonghai Zhu ◽

Yue Cheng ◽

Qii Qi ◽

Shaoru Li ◽

Mohamed Elhoumeda ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Cognitive Development ◽

Birth Cohort ◽

Middle Childhood ◽

Maternal Education ◽

Multinomial Logistic Regression ◽

Developmental Trajectories ◽

Childhood And Adolescence ◽

Long Term Outcomes ◽

Reduced Risk

Abstract Objectives To identify developmental trajectories of infant cognitive, examine its predictors, and associations with long-term outcomes at middle childhood and adolescence. Methods The data were obtained from a prospective birth cohort in 1388 infants born to women who participated in a randomized trial of antenatal micronutrient supplementation in China. Cognitive development was assessed six times from 3 to 30 months of age using Bayley Scales of Infant Development, and at middle childhood and adolescence using Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. Group-based trajectory modeling was applied to identify cognitive z-score developmental trajectories during the first two years of life. Multinomial logistic regression and generalized estimating equations models were performed to examine its predictors and associations with long-term outcomes, respectively. Results Four distinct cognitive developmental trajectories were identified: 1) “Subgroup 1: Start below average-then decrease” (3.2%), 2) “Subgroup 2: Start below average-then increase” (10.2%), 3) “Subgroup 3: Consistently average” (40.3%), and 4) “Subgroup 4: Consistently above average” (46.3%). Compared with Subgroup 4, per grade increase of maternal education reduced risk of being in Subgroup 1 by 73% (95% CI 0.54, 0.84); and small-for-gestational age birth and low birth weight were associated with 4.94 times (95% CI 2.16, 11.33) and 10.60 times (95% CI 3.57, 31.49) risk of being in Subgroup 1. Consuming antenatal multiple micronutrients ≥ 180 days (versus < 180 days of iron and/or folic acid) had an 84% (95% CI -.07, 0.98) reduced risk of being in Subgroup 1 and a 63% (95% CI 0.10, 0.84) reduced risk of being in Subgroup 2. Statistical differences in trajectories early in childhood persisted through middle childhood and early adolescence. Conclusions Our findings highlight the importance of promoting interventions as early as possible. Integration of nutritional and educational interventions to address multiple health and development domains is necessary to reduce the risk of suboptimal developmental outcomes across the life course. Funding Sources The study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China and China Scholarship Council.

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Development of attention networks from childhood to young adulthood: A study of performance, intraindividual variability and cortical thickness

10.1101/2020.10.05.326835 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Rune Boen ◽

Lia Ferschmann ◽

Nandita Vijayakumar ◽

Knut Overbye ◽

Kristine B. Walhovd ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Cognitive Development ◽

Young Adulthood ◽

Executive Control ◽

Developmental Trajectories ◽

Intraindividual Variability ◽

Cortical Region ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Cortical Thinning ◽

Prefrontal Cortical ◽

Age Related

AbstractHuman cognitive development is manifold, with different functions developing at different speeds at different ages. Attention is an important domain of this cognitive development, and involves distinct developmental trajectories in separate functions, including conflict processing, selection of sensory input and alertness. In children, several studies using the Attention Network Test (ANT) have investigated the development of three attentional networks that carry out the functions of executive control, orienting and alerting. There is, however, a lack of studies on the development of these attentional components across adolescence, limiting our understanding of their protracted development. To fill this knowledge gap, we performed a mixed cross-sectional and longitudinal study using mixed methods to examine the development of the attentional components and their intraindividual variability from late childhood to young adulthood (n = 287, n observations = 408, age range = 8.5–26.7 years, mean follow up interval = 4.4 years). The results indicated that executive control stabilized during late adolescence, while orienting and alerting continued to develop into young adulthood. In addition, a continuous development into young adulthood was observed for the intraindividual variability measures of orienting and alerting. In a subsample with available magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data (n =169, n observations = 281), higher alerting scores were associated with thicker cortices within a right prefrontal cortical region and greater age-related cortical thinning in left rolandic operculum, while higher orienting scores were associated with greater age-related cortical thinning in frontal and parietal regions. Finally, increased consistency of orienting performance was associated with thinner cortex in prefrontal regions and reduced age-related thinning in frontal regions.

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Hurler Syndrome: II. Outcome of HLA-Genotypically Identical Sibling and HLA-Haploidentical Related Donor Bone Marrow Transplantation in Fifty-Four Children

Blood ◽

10.1182/blood.v91.7.2601.2601_2601_2608 ◽

1998 ◽

Vol 91 (7) ◽

pp. 2601-2608

Author(s):

Charles Peters ◽

Elsa G. Shapiro ◽

James Anderson ◽

P. Jean Henslee-Downey ◽

Martin R. Klemperer ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Bone Marrow ◽

Enzyme Activity ◽

Bone Marrow Transplantation ◽

Cognitive Development ◽

Marrow Transplantation ◽

Developmental Trajectories ◽

Allogeneic Bone ◽

Hurler Syndrome ◽

Grade Ii ◽

Related Donor

Untreated patients with Hurler syndrome (MPSIH) experience progressive neurologic deterioration and early death. Allogeneic bone marrow transplantation (BMT) ameliorates or halts this course. The Storage Disease Collaborative Study Group was formed to evaluate the effectiveness and toxicity of BMT. Effectiveness was defined as engrafted survival with continuing cognitive development. Fifty-four patients deficient in leukocyte α-l-iduronidase enzyme activity (median age, 1.8 years; range, 0.4 to 7.9) received high-dose chemotherapy with or without irradiation and BMT from HLA-genotypically identical sibling (GIS) or HLA-haploidentical related (HIR) donors between September 16, 1983 and July 14, 1995; all children were included in this report. Thirty-nine of 54 patients (72%) engrafted following the first BMT. The probability of grade II to IV acute graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) at 100 days was 32% for GIS and 55% for HIR patients. The probability of extensive chronic GVHD was 0% for GIS and 24% for HIR patients. The actuarial probability of survival at 5 years was 64% for all patients, 75% for GIS patients, 53% for HIR patients, and 53% for patients with donor marrow engraftment. The baseline Mental Developmental Index (MDI) was examined both for children less than and greater than 24 months of age at BMT. Children transplanted before 24 months had a mean baseline MDI of 78, while those transplanted after 24 months had a mean baseline MDI of 63 (P = .0002). Both baseline and post-BMT neuropsychologic data were available for 26 of 30 engrafted survivors. Of 14 patients transplanted before 24 months of age, nine demonstrated developmental trajectories that were normal or somewhat slower than normal. In contrast, of 12 patients transplanted after 24 months of age, only three showed developmental trajectories that were normal or somewhat slower than normal (P = .01). For children with a baseline MDI greater than 70, there was a significant correlation between the MDI at follow-up study and leukocyte α-l-iduronidase enzyme activity (P = .02). Children were more likely to maintain normal cognitive development if they were fully engrafted following BMT from a donor with homozygous normal leukocyte α-l-iduronidase enzyme activity. Children who developed acute GVHD of grade II or worse had significantly poorer cognitive outcomes (P < .009). No difference in the post-BMT MDI was observed between patients whose preparative therapies did (n = 10; radiation dose, 300 to 1,400 cGy) or did not (n = 16) include radiation. We conclude that MPSIH patients, particularly those less than 24 months of age with a baseline MDI greater than 70, can achieve a favorable long-term outcome with continuing cognitive development and prolonged survival after successful BMT from a related donor with homozygous normal enzyme activity.

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